NEHA Wildfire Response Guide

National Environmental Health Association, Wildfire Response Guide for Environmental Public Health Professionals, Summer 2023

WILDFIRE RESPONSE Guide for Environmental Public Health Professionals

Summer 2023

Contents

Introduction.....................................................................4 Before the Event.........................................................4 Response and Recovery...........................................4 What is a Wildfire? .................................................... 4 Changes in Wildfire Frequency and Intensity.................................................................4 Role of Environmental Public Health...................................................................6 Partnership with Emergency Services.................6 Developing and Updating Protocols....................6 Determining Agency Involvement.........................6 Wildfire Smoke and Air Quality ............................. 6 Staffing ........................................................................... 7 Response Role.............................................................7 Recovery Role..............................................................7 Mutual Aid . ................................................................... 7

Key Environmental Health Areas ...........................14 Air Quality .................................................................. 14 Food . ............................................................................ 18 Water (Including Stormwater) . ........................... 20 Sanitation ..................................................................23 Vectors And Pests...................................................24 Hazardous Materials/Waste (Including Soil Sampling) ...................................... 25 Solid Waste and Debris.........................................28 Mass Care...................................................................31 Healthy Homes and Re-Entry.............................32 Other Considerations .............................................. 35

General References.....................................................41

Acronyms...................................................................... 41

About this Project.......................................................42

Role of Environmental Public Health Before a

Endnotes. ...................................................................... 43

Wildfire Happens ...........................................................8 Emergency Response Planning.............................9 All-Hazards Planning................................................9 Agency Coordination.................................................9

Notes.............................................................................. 46

Role of Environmental Public Health During and

After a Wildfire ........................................................... 11 Coordination with Incident Command..............12 Department or County Emergency Operations Center.......................................................................... 12 Joint Information Center........................................12 Initial Damage Assessment..................................12 Recovery Resources ................................................ 13 Guidance/Form Review .......................................... 13

Introduction This guide is intended for environmental public health professionals responding to a wildfire as part of an immediate response or recovery process. It provides information needed in the event of a wildfire within a jurisdiction, with potential consid - erations and roles for environmental public health professionals. The guide outlines steps that can be taken before, during, and after a wildfire event. It is not intended to provide a comprehensive discussion of each key environmental health area. A number of guidance documents and weblinks are provided to review hopefully before a wildfire occurs. For each of the key areas, this guide identifies environmental public health concerns and their corresponding immediate response and recovery objectives. Also included are: • boilerplate messages • web links and forms that can be used to meet objectives Due to the many environmental public health responsibilities, a review of this and other refer - enced guidance is recommended before a wildfire occurs. Periodic reviews, training, and updates should also be considered. It is prudent to recognize disaster potentials and trends (for example, climate change and its local impacts) to make informed decisions regarding emergency preparedness and response. Response and Recovery This guide will focus on response and recovery activities, with consideration for preparedness duties. Response activities immediately follow a wildfire starting, where the focus is on protecting lives/ property and managing its spread. Recovery activities are taken to return the community and conditions to normal after a wildfire including the rebuilding process, educating communities, and developing better wildfire prevention practices. This guide is not intended to be comprehensive within each topic area, but to provide environmen - • links to guidance documents • possible cross-sector partners Before the Event

tal public health staff with ideas about what to consider when a wildfire occurs. What is a Wildfire? A wildfire (also known as a forest fire, brush - fire, wildland fire, or rural fire) is defined as an unplanned unwanted fire. A wildfire includes unau - thorized human-caused fires, escaped prescribed fire projects, and all other wildland fires where the objective is to put the fire out. 1 Wildfires can occur almost anywhere in the United States and many parts of the world. Wildland Fires Wildland fires are non-structural fires that occur in the wildland, 2 have existed for millennia, and have served to maintain the health of a forest or ecosystem, including returning nutrients to the soil; opening up space for additional sunlight for younger trees and plants; releasing seeds when a fire melts the resin that holds seeds inside cones or fruits; clearing undergrowth of flammable materials; and decreasing insect infestations or invasive plant species. Prescribed Fires A prescribed fire is a planned fire intentionally ignited to meet certain objectives such as preventing high-intensity wildland fires by reducing hazardous fuel loads near developed areas. There has been much debate on the pros and cons of prescribed fires, also called prescribed burns, but if properly managed, can reap benefits that outweigh the cons of its use. 3 Changes in Wildfire Frequency and Intensity Many factors have led to the increase in wild- fires, their intensity, and impacts on homes. These include: • climate change, • drought conditions, • under-use of prevention techniques such as prescribed burns or brush clearance, • fire-resistant building construction, and • population centers moving into what are known as wildland-urban interfaces (WUI). Droughts in recent years have led to beetle infes - tations that have killed trees and created an enor - mous amount of dry fuel. Invasive plants have displaced native species that differ in flammability.

The focus over the last century has been to “extinguish” 4 every fire, no matter how small. These historic forest management practices have resulted in enormous undergrowth and fuel loads that can facilitate the spread and intensity of wildfires. There are now larger fires, longer-last - ing fires, a longer fire season, and hotter droughts. In recent years, these once rare “mega-fires” have resulted in more deaths, more destruction of buildings and homes, and more acreage burned or destroyed. 5 , 6

Role of Environmental Public Health Wildfires have long been thought of as being responded to by fire agencies; however, local envi - ronmental public health staff have a vital role in wildfire response. Partnership with Emergency Services Environmental public health responsibilities must be part of the response paradigm and also major roles in other components of the emergency management (EM) cycle. This cycle includes pre - paredness, response, recovery, and mitigation. It is important to recognize that for the most part, environmental public health will have limited duties and responsibilities in the fire zones while the wild - fire is active and engaged. 7 However, many activi - ties can be performed in locations outside the fire area such as messaging, air sampling, and response to wildfire smoke. Developing and Updating Protocols Environmental public health entities should create, review, or update emergency/disaster protocols. Larger environmental public health organizations may be better positioned to do this, but smaller or rural organizations are also impacted by larger-scale wildfires and will also need to update their protocols. The number of people impacted will vary, but the responsibility to protect, inform, advise, and educate is similar between large and small jurisdictions. Determining Agency Involvement Environmental public health professionals must decide what their involvement with the compo- nents of the EM cycle will look like. Specifically, how will staff prepare the agency and commu - nities for a major wildfire. A review of agency capacity, capabilities and the types of resources necessary in a fire disaster is crucial to preparing for wildfire response and recovery. For example, environmental public health organiza - tions must determine their involvement and duties

as it relates to water availability, safety, commu - niques, and directives. Will another agency be primary to the environmental public health respon - sibilities? How will directives be communicated and which agencies will play a role in its crafting? Who is the primary responsible party to investigate and mitigate water impacts? How does the environ - mental public health organization currently interact with agencies that have primary lead status? These questions and more should be analyzed and deter - Wildfire smoke is its own hazard with its own set of health impacts and interventions. It often has a wider geographic impact than wildfires since smoke travels and can affect areas not directly impacted by the fire. Wildfire smoke and ash has always been a concern, but additional effort is being placed in sampling for more harmful smaller size particu - lates (particulate matter 2.5). Environmental public health staff assist the public through air sampling, 8 messaging, and providing guidance (or delivery) of HEPA portable air cleaners or box fan filter kits which can be constructed easily at a lower cost. minations made before a wildfire occurs. Wildfire Smoke and Air Quality

Staffing The most important resources are the professionals working within environmental public health organi - zations. Management should review staffing poli - cies and procedures because a wildfire event may impact their staff directly or indirectly. This may include: • how to support employees whose homes might be damaged/destroyed • work expectations for recall • changing duties • job assignments • organizational structure • what your agency is willing to take on during and following the wildfire • mental/behavioral health issues • longevity of the response • how to continue agency responsibilities in areas not impacted by wildfires Response Role Responsibilities within the fire area might include activities at the base camp or command post to ensure minimum standards are met for feeding, water supply, and housing of response staff. Envi - ronmental public health duties could also include staffing emergency operations centers to support the needs and requests made by emergency oper - ations. Staff should: • monitor fire activity • find out the scope of damaged or destroyed homes or buildings

Recovery Role During recovery, staff responsibilities could last a significant amount of time – from months to years. Recovery involves government at all levels working to support wildfire-impacted communities. These activities involve: • permitting and reconstruction of homes • ensuring safe housing, food, and water • providing temporary housing • restoring health, social, and community services • rebuilding infrastructure • re-establishing normal living conditions

Mutual Aid This guide does not cover “mutual aid.” 9 Smaller or rural jurisdictions might consider obtaining out - side resources from nearby environmental public health agencies or others with specific abilities or credentials. Recent large California wildfires required local mutual aid-type assistance, espe - cially during recovery operations. State-facili - tated mutual aid plans and processes may help environmental public health agencies. Explore the state’s involvement in wildfire recovery. In some states, for example, removal of household hazardous waste might be taken on by the state agency charged with hazardous waste regulatory responsibilities. Local hazardous waste regulatory entities are advised to participate and support where possible and when appropriate.

• evaluate personnel and resource needs • review guidance and public information documents

Role of Environmental Public Health Before a Wildfire Happens There are many steps environmental public health entities and staff can take to prepare for a wildfire. These include: • Discuss and decide use of staff before, during and after a wildfire. • Train professionals in the basics of emergency management: National Incident Management System (NIMS), National Response Framework (NRF), the Incident Command System (ICS 100, 200, and 300 levels) 10 and the state processes and systems where the professional lives and works. 11 • Train staff on field safety, personal protection, first aid, mental health, Environmental Health Training in Emergency Response (EHTER) 12 Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER) and any other training necessary to perform duties. • Provide ongoing education on the many aspects of emergency management. • Work with partner agencies that might have strike team or mutual aid assistance capabilities to determine parameters and resource request processes. • Hold meetings with other agency principals who may have interactive roles with environmental public health staff. Check to see if there is an emergency planning committee and participate. Repeat annually. • Identify and procure appropriate personal protective and emergency supplies. • Determine vehicle, equipment, communications, go bag and other resources needed to deploy staff. • If applicable, consider impacts of wildfires in adjoining jurisdictions on services and resources needed to sustain public assistance.

• Discuss monitoring stations and sampling strategies for smoke/air quality. • Identify, craft, or update emergency forms or messaging boiler-plate (pre-scripted) documents. Many of these documents can be posted before any wildfire activity as part of ongoing communications. • Identify media and public information protocols. Train key staff. • Examine data collection and processing systems that could be used to collect and give out appropriate information through dashboards. • Examine health and safety policies and procedures. • Review protocols to ensure mental well-being in a disaster situation. • Examine/address logistical needs for staff deployed in a wildfire disaster area. • Examine availability of data systems to collect field survey information and how it can be available to the public or cooperating agencies. • Conduct annual refresher sessions to make sure staff stay current on important topics identified by management. • Build GIS maps with critical infrastructure (hospitals, long-term care facilities, schools, childcare, shelter locations, etc.). • Evacuation route planning. • Shelter air quality planning. • Water resource needs for responders and the community during and after a wildfire.

Emergency Response Planning Environmental public health professionals should play an active role in emergency response planning to determine duties and responsibilities, first at the local level, then at the state and federal levels. Familiarity with your local and state emergency response plan helps you understand what can and should be done and how to access additional resources. If a wildfire is significant in size or juris - dictions impacted, additional resources (includ - ing those through mutual aid/assistance) may be necessary. This should be discussed at the regional and state levels. Messaging, public advisories, and acting as local public and environmental health technical special - ists for responding agencies will be important roles for staff. Some issues will arise during the wild - fire, but most will be a concern after the wildfire has been contained and recovery operations have begun. Local environmental public health staff will be called upon to perform many functions directly or indirectly related to normal program responsibil-

ities. The environmental public health agency must decide its involvement. All-Hazards Planning Wildfires are only one of many disaster scenarios that a local environmental public health agency could face. Prudent planning and consideration of an all-hazard 13 approach with collaboration and interactions of key response agencies are critical. Environmental public health agencies recognize the key role they play in various disaster situations and must consider prepara - There are numerous governmental, non-govern - mental, and quasi-governmental entities that staff will potentially interact with during and following a wildfire. They are too numerous to list specifically, as every fire will be somewhat different. How - ever, key players are listed here. Some entities are indicated as local/state/federal because of their involvement at all levels, not that they are neces - sarily government operations. tions common to any disaster. Agency Coordination

Agency Type Fire Services

Local

State

Federal

Bureau of Land Management, National Park Service, US Forest Service 14

Law Enforcement

X X X X X X X X X X X X

Public Works and Planning agencies

Flood Control Agencies City Resource Agencies

Animal Control, Fish and Wildlife

X X X X X X

X X X

Public Information Offices

Other Public Health Entities outside EPH Local or State Public Health Officer Local and regional medical/health coordinators

Air Quality entities Building and Safety

Disaster and Emergency Management agencies

American Red Cross, Salvation Army and other disaster aid entities State agencies environmental protection departments or agencies

Agricultural Commissioner offices

X X X X X X X X X

X X

Farming and Ranching Associations or Organizations

Public Social Services, regional planning

Rural water association

Mental Health

X X X X X X X X X

Bureau of Indian Affairs and other offices

X X X

Various utilities

Various political offices

Beaches and harbor agencies, parks agencies

Legal support

Department of Defense Environmental laboratories

X X

Insurance companies

Role of Environmental Public Health During and After a Wildfire Expect the unexpected. There will be challenges that are not in the playbook. Be flexible with your response. When a wildfire first occurs: • obtain information on fire behavior and spread to determine impacted residential areas or businesses • examine resource needs • look at the potential need for additional resources • review policies and procedures on disaster response • review and update existing guidance to the public • gear up or stand down based on intel provided The impact on local communities in the path of a wildfire is obvious. Residents in wildfire-prone areas, especially wildfire urban interface (WUI) areas are well advised to prepare their own family plans by following “Ready, Set, Go” guidelines. 15 , 16 In the wildfires seen in the last decade, however, surrounding communities are also affected. A fire’s impact and its smoke may be widespread and involve surrounding cities, counties, and states. Environmental public health and emergency response agencies need to be aware and plan accordingly. Some of the possible impacts might include: • law enforcement, fire, and ambulances sent to the disaster • establishment of evacuation centers • medical centers filled from evacuations of hospitals • pharmacy and oxygen demand overload • animal shelters are overwhelmed • hotels overloaded • increased demand and use of sewage systems • solid waste, debris, and mudflow issues • increased demand on water infrastructure

• physical, chemical and biological contamination of surface waters 17 • unsafe outdoor and indoor air • increased demand on telecommunication systems The responsibilities of environmental public health professionals during and after a wildfire will be broad. Smaller jurisdictions may opt to allow the state or another agency to handle some of the workload. Priorities and what environmental public health staff take on should be what they are familiar with and within their scope of duties. Some of these include: • Indoor and outdoor air quality • Food safety including mass feeding locations • Mass care facilities • Drinking water safety • Sanitation • Vector and pest management • Solid waste and debris removal and landfill duties • Hazardous waste / materials removal • Healthy homes and re-entry • Guidance for homeowners and businesses 18 • Institutions, schools, hospitals, and other care facilities • Public health advisories • Animal Control • Emergency Operations Center (EOC) duties • Disaster assistance center duties • Infection control matters • Assessment of regulated facilities

Coordination with Incident Command During an active wildfire event, it is important that any interactions in the field occur at the incident command level. An “agency representative” can be assigned to the “command post” and report to the “Liaison Officer”. Environmental public health is considered a “cooperating agency” 19 under this scheme. The liaison officer is the incident com - mand’s point of contact for representatives of cooperating governmental agencies, jurisdictions, non-government organizations (NGOs), and private sector organizations that are not included in the unified command. After the wildfire is contained, incident command could be transferred to another agency such as environmental public health or pub - lic works to begin the process of debris removal, cleanup, and recovery. Key players can then rede - fine the organization. 20

• coordinating plans and determining current and future needs • in some cases, providing coordination and policy direction There will be situations where the EOC serves as a focal point for the establishment of mass care locations or points of distribution, allowing incident command to focus on the incident. They may also be involved with coordination of efforts when the wildfire covers multiple counties or several wild - fires converge on a path. A critical function is to provide communications and updates with incorpo - rated cities within the wildfire area. They can also let them know of the establishment of assistance centers and often will be involved with assistance in locating those centers. As a key interface with their communities, cities will often provide valuable assistance in holding community meetings and pro - viding the conduits to the impacted public. In many situations, especially during the recovery phase, environmental public health departments may have their own EOC with staff who become the focal point for environmental public health resources, planning, communications, and coordina - tion. 21 , 22 Joint Information Center Coordination with other involved agencies or entities is imperative to avoid public confusion that may lead to further risk or injury. A Joint Informa - tion Center (JIC) is typically established for major or large incidents, where such public messaging is coordinated and distributed. It is always a good idea to inform your public information office of all of the agencies/entities involved. They should coordi - nate media communications among agency PIOs or representatives, as appropriate. Initial Damage Assessment The initial response from environmental public health will be to assess the breadth of destruc - tion and/or damage to homes, facilities, and busi - nesses. This initial assessment will determine current needs and how to fulfill unmet needs. Some of those activities will occur during the active or “response” phase even while the wildfire is still actively being fought by fire personnel and will mandate a plan to ensure the safety and well-be - ing of staff. No environmental public health staff should be dispatched in or through active wildfire

Department or County Emergency Operations Center An emergency operations center (EOC) is a neces - sary focal point for support of an emergency, espe - cially one that is widespread, large, or ongoing. Typically, the lead agency or department for the emergency operations center calls for its activation and assembles representatives from a number of different agencies to help support its functioning. EOCs can be established at city, county, state, or federal levels, and, in larger incidents, all of these may have functioning EOCs. Within a county there may both department and county EOCs. An EOC’s primary functions include: • collecting, analyzing, and sharing information • supporting resource needs and requests, including allocation and tracking

areas, and care must be given to routes and loca - tions of, for example, command posts or mass care facilities. 23 Recovery Resources As the wildfire progresses or is contained, EPH must switch gears and begin “recovery” phase. Involvement should be predetermined and based on departmental objectives, political desires, and resources available. Involvement will also depend on the level of state and federal resources and the desire on their part for local participation. 24 Con- sider agency resources, since recovery operations may be extensive and long-lasting. Guidance/Form Review Environmental public health staff should review forms and guidance for specific activities. For exam - ple, local inspectors can use boilerplate evacua - tion center inspection forms. Environmental public health guidance, forms, and advisories will require review and updates and possibly the creation of new ones. Preferably, this can and should occur

before a wildfire breaks out, but often, public guid - ance will be assembled and crafted as the wildfire unfolds. There may or may not be specific statutory or regulatory requirements in all situations. However, staff can reference broader or generic regulatory authorities found in other situations. For example, hazardous wastes must be handled and disposed of appropriately, even though households may not be specifically mentioned in state or local laws or ordinances. Most agencies have many different, typically checklist-style forms for their various regulatory programs. At times, a blank notice of violation with references to applicable state regulations or stat - utes can be used to direct compliance or minimize specific threats to the community or public health. The use of existing forms for many situations is appropriate and easily attainable.

Key Environmental Health Areas Air Quality The smoke from major wildfires has drawn atten - tion within the last several decades, because of the size and ferocity of wildfires generating the smoke, as well as the reach and extent of the smoke. The impact on sensitive populations and potential harmful contents of the smoke continues to be studied. There are few options to eliminate smoke, especially with larger, more intense wildfires. If there is smoke in the air for any extended period, it will enter buildings and structures, so concerns are for indoor as well as outdoor air. Public health measures involve reducing exposure to the extent possible through engineering controls, advisories, and focus on sensitive populations such as the young, pregnant, elderly, medically vulnerable, or those in low socioeconomic areas where certain controls may not be available. Health Impacts The principal known harmful pollutant in wildfire smoke is small particulate matter (PM), which is suspended in the air and is typically made up of solid particles and liquid droplets. Coarse particles have a diameter less than 10 micrometers and may irritate the throat, eyes, and nose but generally do not penetrate deep into the lungs. Fine particulates less than 2.5 micrometers in diameter pose the greatest risk because they can reach deep into the lungs and enter the bloodstream, affecting vital organs. Other pollutants of concern generated by wildfire smoke including carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. 25 If a wildfire reaches a populated area or impacts industrial facilities, the smoke could include many other toxic materials. Air pollutants could be gener - ated by plastics, pesticides, or other hazardous materials/waste found in building construction, households, industrial, or retail facilities. Some of the burned locations could also have asbestos-con - taining materials (ACM) or heavy metals. See the

section of this guide on hazardous materials/waste. The impacts are serious and include respiratory problems, especially for people with asthma, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or other lung diseases. Other impacts are cardiovascular, especially for individuals with underlying heart disease. Eye and skin irritation are also connected to wildfire smoke. Reduced visibility makes driving dangerous. Public Education Environmental public health professionals will provide health prevention and risk content for pub - lic messaging and recommendations to protect the community (especially sensitive or disadvantaged populations). After the wildfire is contained, recom - mendations might include protections during miti - gation or cleanup and other steps during recovery activities. Environmental and public health departments have also become more involved in supporting efforts to distribute indoor air filtration devices such as por - table air cleaners or do-it-yourself box fan filters. 26 Environmental public health staff may be deployed to impacted areas and need to know how to address their own health and safety concerns. Air Sampling One unique feature of recent wildfires such as the Dixie 27 fire in California and the Bootleg fire in Ore - gon, 28 is the distance and impact smoke has on pop - ulations far away from where the wildfire is located. Coordinate efforts between jurisdictions including air quality agencies and health agencies at the state or federal level. At the very least, know who the air agencies are and their capabilities. For example, air sampling resources might be found in larger juris -

dictions, state agencies, the Forest Service, or uni - versities and colleges. Some states have developed guidance or protocols for smoke-related wildfire response, such as the one developed by Oregon. 29 Public Message Coordination Messaging must be consistent, accurate, and timely across all responding agencies. Developing relationships before a wildfire is very important because it establishes the conduits to synchronize messaging. Messages with smoke measurements should include actionable recommendations to be communicated across all media channels. If you have one, ensure your PIO is communicating with Other agencies may have a stronger role in air quality matters. A large multijurisdictional wildfire and air quality objectives should be coordinated between the many agencies that might be involved. Staff will generally be involved with collecting data and information to formulate public health messages. In some counties, the local public health officer might be involved with decisions and recom - mendations on when to cancel outdoor events or school activities. Sample Messaging 30 , 31 • EPA AirNow Chart showing air quality index basics • CDPH Wildfire Smoke Considerations for Public Health Officials 2022 Guideline • EPA et al Wildfire Smoke Guide for Public Health Officials 2019 • Washington Air Quality Guide for School & Child Care Activities • Washington Guide for Public Health Actions for Wildfire Smoke • Wildfire Smoke Local PHO Guidance for Canceling Outdoor Events or Activities and Closing Schools April 2022 their points of contact to coordinate. Outdoor Air Quality Objectives

Immediate Response Objectives • Develop risk and prevention messages for the community, including actions for special populations in the primary languages spoken in the impacted community. • Coordinate messaging across the involved agencies. 71 • Ensure populations with heightened vulnerabilities, such as senior citizens, are informed of options to minimize smoke exposure. • Consider recommending evacuations where communities may be in the path of heavier smoke, especially sensitive populations that have minimal engineering controls available. • Monitor and track the pathway and intensity of the wildfire and constantly evaluate messaging in coordination with fire and other emergency entities. • Ensure pets have an evacuation location with provisions for water and the appropriate pet foods. Recovery Response • Develop and distribute guidance and information on reducing smoke and ash exposure after the wildfire is contained and residents are allowed to return home. Information provided on a website as well as printed for handouts is ideal. • Ensure communities are aware that returning residents and occupants may stir up ash and dust during retrieval activities. • Minimize exposure to sensitive populations during retrieval activities. • Ensure communities are aware of protocols and safeguards for cleanup that may generate ash and soot within structures or burned areas. • Emphasize concerns and recommendations if windy conditions exist.

Sample messaging can be downloaded at: bit.ly/wildfire-guide

Immediate Response Ojectives • Initial concerns are in the immediate vicinity downwind of an active wildfire when the smoke is most intense. Evacuate if advised by fire officials. • Develop and distribute public messaging. This might include: • During the wildfire, advise residences to close all windows and doors and seal gaps and leaks around doors, windows or anywhere smoke can enter. • Filter air with portable air filters or central air filters in recirculation mode. • Consider air cleaners that are effective in remov- ing particles without generating ozone, such as high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters or electrostatic precipitators. • Stay indoors, minimize, or avoid heavy or prolonged physical activity, and reduce other sources of indoor air pollution. • Become familiar and check the AirNow.gov website for air quality advisories. 72 • Coordinate messaging to the public with the many involved agencies. • Work with schools and other institutions to ensure IAQ practices help prevent exposures to wildfire smoke. • Ensure special populations, including older adults, young children, individuals with health conditions such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and those with limited resources are provided culturally appropriate messages and guidance. • Work with schools and other institutions to ensure IAQ practices help reduce exposure to wildfire smoke. • Consider recommending evacuations where communities may be in the path of heavier smoke, especially sensitive populations that have minimal engineering controls available. • Translate all communications into languages primarily spoken in the impacted area.

Indoor Air Quality Objectives Indoor air quality (IAQ) mitigation involves rein - forcing measures to maintain or improve conditions within a home or other occupied building during an active wildfire where smoke could be significant (even at long distances from where the wildfire is burning). IAQ issues involve a multitude of factors such as building construction, damage (incurred or not), residential sensitivities, and proximity to the wildfire. There will be concerns and steps that can be taken during the wildfire smoke event and certainly after - ward as it relates to cleanup and decontamination. EPH will be involved in providing post-fire mitigation advice and recommendations. Sample Messaging • EPA Wildfires and Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) • EPA “Wildfire Smoke Resources to Protect Your Health” with further links to resources and guidance. Health Fact Sheets are particularly useful in crafting local fact sheets • EPA “Smoke Ready Toolbox for Wildfires” with numerous links to resources and guidance • Washington State DOH weblink for Smoke from Fires with FAQ’s and resource links • AirNow Be Smoke Ready • Cal EPA Guidance for Schools During Wildfire Smoke Events -2019 • Oregon Wildfire Response Protocol for Severe Smoke Episodes June 30, 2022 • EPA Research on DIY Air Cleaners to Reduce Wildfire Smoke Indoors

Sample messaging can be downloaded at: bit.ly/wildfire-guide

Recovery Response Objectives • When the fire is contained and smoke is no longer present, building and home cleanup may be required. This may necessitate a disaster recovery professional. • Residents will want to return to their homes/ businesses that have been destroyed or damaged to salvage what they can. Provide messaging on safety precautions to be taken in the primary languages spoken in the community. • Environmental public health staff may be asked to provide guidance on removing smoke and ash contamination. Public demand may require establishing call centers to address questions and complaints, although it is ideal to include as much information as possible on your website, as well as a digital submission process. • Because ash may be present throughout a household or building, cleanup guidelines should address how to minimize exposure. Protective outer gear should be worn, including good boots, gloves, masks, and long-sleeved clothing. • There may be items that are uncleanable. • Ensure returning residents and occupants are aware that their retrieval activities may stir up ash and dust and that exposure to sensitive populations should be minimized. • Ensure communities are aware of protocols and safeguards for cleanup that may generate ash and soot within structures. • Translate all communications into languages primarily spoken in the impacted area.

Key Cross Section/Specialty Partners Many organizations are involved with air quality including governmental, non-governmental, pri - vate businesses, and universities or colleges. Take advantage of opportunities to foster cross-section/ specialty partnerships during and after a wildfire. For example, if there are no sampling capabilities in smaller rural jurisdictions, are there federal, state, or local agencies, or colleges/universities that could help with sampling? Look to these outside entities for assistance, if needed. The Washington State Department of Health 32 recognizes the public health threats from wildfire smoke and in 2018 established a Wildfire Smoke Impacts Advisory Group. Representatives from state and local health jurisdictions, tribal represen - tatives, public information officers, health officers and academic professionals meet to develop con- sistent messaging and fact-based health guidance for agencies developing guidance for the public. 33 The Interagency Wildland Fire Air Quality Response Program ( IWFAQRP) 34 was created to directly assess, communicate, and address risks posed by wildland fire smoke. The program depends on four primary components: specially trained personnel called Air Resource Advisors, air quality monitoring, smoke concentration and dis - persion modeling, and coordination and cooperation with agency partners.

Food Wherever food is served to the public or respond - ers, food safety is a concern. Environmental public health professionals play a critical role in ensuring that foodborne outbreaks will not occur or, if they do occur, are quickly and effectively investigated and measures are put in place to prevent reoccur - rence. This might entail: • spot inspections or assessments • complaint investigations • other monitoring means Standard foodborne illness protocols should be employed when outbreaks occur. Health Risks Food pathogens are one source of potential food borne illness. Primary interventions include appli - cation of safe food practices, implementation of employee health policies, controlling hands as a vehicle of contamination, and time/temperature parameters for controlling pathogens. Environmen- tal public health staff should be watchful for other ways food may become contaminated including with chemicals. Food contamination may occur following a wildfire due to smoke and ash-exposed foods or produce in fields. Many food safety messages for areas impacted by power outages have already been developed. Two examples can be found in the Mes - saging links below. Donated foods Following a wildfire, mass care facilities or base camps can be overwhelmed by good intentioned people who want to help by providing, among other things, food donations for displaced individuals, workers, and responders. All prepared foods and food that must be kept cold, frozen, or hot should be strongly discouraged. The potential for food borne illnesses can be significant if proper controls are not part of the preparation or storage of such pre - pared foods. Messaging should be developed for what will be accepted as a donation. These might include boxed or bagged food, canned food, bottled or canned drinks, water or juices, and dried packaged foods.

Food Facilities It may become necessary to close regulated food facilities. Consider modifications to operations that will serve a public need as long as certain basic conditions are met. Some of the reasons for closure might include: • Building/electrical safety • Utility outage • Lack of or unsafe water • Waste disposal • Unsafe food supply • Vectors and/or pests • Necessary cleanup Sample Messaging • Boulder County Public Health Food Safety After a Fire • CDC Social Media Graphics Safe Food After a Disaster • Minnesota Advance Practice Centers Emergency Readiness for Food Workers • USDA Emergency Response Pocket Guide-Food Safety • Boulder Co PH Electrical Outage Checklist • Boulder Co PH Food Safety Factsheet • Boulder Co PH Food Safety After a Fire Factsheet • Boulder Co PH Boil Water Advisory Guidance for Restaurants, Bars & Other Food Retailers • Sonoma County Post-Fire Food Safety Webinar

October 2019, UC et al . • Food borne pathogens

Sample messaging can be downloaded at: bit.ly/ wildfire-guide .

Sample Forms • Disaster Assessment, Response and Recovery Checklist • Boulder Co PH Disaster Report Boil Water Order Inspector Checklist for Retail Food Facilities • Boulder Co PH After a Disaster Reopening a Retail Food Establishment Guide and Checklist • Boulder Co PH Disaster Report Fire and Salvage Checklist for Inspectors • Boulder Co PH Inspector Checklist Electrical Outage Sample forms can be downloaded at: bit.ly/wild - fire-guide . • Translate all communications into the primary languages spoken in the impacted communities. • Maintain communications from field operations on the status of closures due to foodborne illness outbreaks, utility shutoffs, lack of water, or other serious conditions. • Document all activities including those experiencing foodborne illnesses with their contact information. Immediate Response Objectives • Ensure safe and clean eating facilities at evacuation centers or mass feeding locations. Conduct inspections or assessments and/or address complaints as appropriate. • Ensure safe and clean eating facilities at command post or base camp locations. Conduct inspections or assessments and/or address complaints as appropriate. • Reach out to impacted food establishments with disaster guide information. • Address complaints and make sure food outbreak investigations occur in a timely manner. • Identify and order correction of any critical violations at feeding locations. • Establish protocols to separate (to the extent possible) any individuals with diarrhea and/or vomiting in base camps, mass care evacuation centers, or other lodging facilities to prevent further transmission. • Ensure public messaging is provided in any Public Safety Power Shutoffs where, for example, high winds can bring downed trees or debris into contact with energized lines, damage equipment, or ignite a wildfire. This may include regulated facilities as well as households.

Recovery Objectives • Identify and map regulated facilities within the wildfire zones and conduct inspections or assessments to determine their status. • Determine wildfire and smoke impact on regulated food and market facilities. Inspect and document as appropriate for necessary follow-up inspections. • Ensure reopening procedures are established and followed by facilities that have been closed. • Ensure contaminated foods are properly managed and disposed of. Establish mechanisms to pick up and destroy contaminated foods from homes and commercial locations soon after the wildfires are contained. • Provide technical assistance and consultation to owners/managers of food establishments on food safety. • Assist and educate regulated food establishments in re-opening following a wildfire. Ensure appropriate inspection and permit requirements are met. • Ensure reopened regulated facilities can provide safe and hygienic food preparation and service. • Provide messaging on home food safety following wildfires where power outages may have occurred. Ensure messaging is available online and via print and in the primary languages spoken in the community. • Ensure regulated facilities or institutions housing sensitive individuals or populations such as hospitals, schools, prisons, or senior care facilities are operating under current regulatory requirements if within impact areas of the wildfire smoke. • Assist and educate the public and community on appropriate disposal practices for spoiled, contaminated, or exposed foods, including any available assistance. • Address complaints and ensure continuance of food outbreak investigations.

Water (Including Stormwater) Water is a critical concern for environmental pub - lic health professionals during and after a wildfire because it can become physically, chemically and/ or microbiologically contaminated. Water, including drinking water may also become limited or unavail - able requiring alternative sources. Building-specific and small unregulated water systems need to be assessed and evaluated. Critical messaging should be prepared and forwarded to impacted commu - nities. For example, citizens need to know what actions to take to determine if their system is con - taminated and poses a health risk. They also need to understand what repairs may be necessary for private wells and the potential need for an alter- nate water source (e.g., trucked in or bottled water) and how to obtain, store and use such water. This guide cannot cover all the nuances of water safety. Consider the many impacts a wildfire may have on the entire breadth of water systems and determine the role your agency will play in protecting public health and safety. Impacts on water and distribution systems can be related to pressure issues, power cutoffs, telecom - munication outages that might impact monitoring systems, personnel limitations, and contamination issues that require clear direction on alternatives and actions necessary. Some of the concerns are: • Damage to piping and equipment on private drinking water wells leading to possible water contamination from fire and smoke chemical byproducts. 35 • Ash and debris in watersheds and runoff, which can contain heavy metals, pesticides, and other harmful chemicals. This can also increase the risk of flooding due to the loss of vegetation that can also cause contaminants to be washed into water sources. Additionally, past land use (e.g., mining) can also mobilize pollutants into downstream urban waters. • Damage to water infrastructure and public water systems such as water treatment plants or pipelines making it difficult to treat and distribute water. • Impacts on water supply from firefighting activities. • Impacts on water treatment facilities from power outages.

Alternative Water Supplies Agencies will have to address many of water safety concerns with water purveyors and operators, pri - vate citizens, and the community. Develop adviso - ries for “boil water” (if no chemical contamination is possible), “do not drink water” (if pressure loss and structure/asset destruction occurred) or “do not use water” (with chemical contamination). The needs for alternative water supplies may be immediate and will necessitate pre-planning and logistical considerations. Mitigation efforts and reconstruc - tion will have to include water quality issues. Damage Assessment of Drinking Water Systems Drinking water safety may be compromised both during and after a wildfire. Ash and sediment in water sources can lead to issues at pumping or treatment plants. This can result from watershed runoff into water sources. Private and public water systems and wells are a broad topic that involves wells, water sources, chemical contamination fol - lowing a wildfire, drinking water quality and storm - water issues. It is highly likely that many residents will want to return to their homes and establish portable or temporary water tanks or systems that may require evaluation and approval by local envi - ronmental public health agencies. A growing concern, especially for private or smaller water systems, is potential contamination from the burning of plastics and debris found in water sys - tems. 36 Contaminants might include volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and semi-volatile organic com - pounds (SVOCs). 37 This will usually occur with a loss of pressure or damage to the system. Benzene alone and benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and

xylenes (BTEX) are not predictors of other contami - nation in drinking water. Recent wildfires where these components were tested resulted in a do not use advisory with specific instructions on how to replace then flush the pipe - lines and components. 38 The challenge is the policy for dealing with systems where chemical contami- nants are found, often with advice and recommenda - tions from state water agencies. Testing In past wildfires, drinking water issues were not consistently addressed by public agencies and homeowners were essentially left with their own resources. But evidence is now pointing to a new emphasis on rapid, standardized, and widespread testing, validated SOPs and controls, implement - ing strict “do not use” water orders for fires in WUI areas, examining policy priorities before the next disaster and improving guidance to homeowners to protect public health and plumbing infrastructure. 39 It is recommended that water primacy agencies be contacted as a planning issue to discuss how these matters will be handled in your state. Guidance Authors in one article 40 reviewed scientific, industry, and government documents that revealed national Immediate Response Objectives • Assess and evaluate impacts or potential impacts on water systems. • Track wildfire activity to determine system impacts. Determine impacts from power loss or outages, waterline breaks, or increased consumption from firefighting efforts. • Depending on wildfire damage and destruction, work with your PIO to develop, review and update messaging. • Develop or review plans to test water and decide what to test. This could result in guidance for homeowners and/or providing some form of assistance in sampling. • Develop, review, and distribute boil water, do not drink water or do not use advisories. • Research and draft plans on how to deal with possible chemical contamination of water sources, distribution lines, and/or homes. • Locate potable water resources and develop plans to distribute.

and industry approaches for water system contam - ination response to wildfires do not exist. 41 Envi- ronmental public health professionals must review current information and data available and make best judgments and decisions to protect the public and water systems. Stormwater and Flood Runoff When wildfires are followed by extreme rainfall, runoff can destroy communities. Engineers must determine whether mud and debris flow will neces - sitate mandatory evacuations. The January 9, 2018 Montecito mudflow in Santa Barbara County killed 23 people and destroyed more than 100 homes fol- lowing the massive 281,000-acre Thomas Fire that was finally contained early in January 2018. 42 • Determine impacts of subsequent rainfall in watershed areas that lead to water reservoirs or treatment plants. Typically, water treatment plants are not set up to handle high turbidity source surface water. • Seek recommendations from local public works or flood control agencies for Best Management Practices (BMPs) . • Evaluate need to protect wells, treatment plans and other infrastructure from flooding and debris flow following significant rainfall, such as with sandbags and other barriers. • Provide assistance in disinfection and/or decontamination of water distribution systems, storage tanks, and water tanker trucks. Recovery Objectives • Evaluate data and feedback on partially or unburned homes where residents may return and require water. • Review and update certified testing laboratories available to residents. • Seek advice from state water agencies (primacy agency) to ascertain current policies. • Include water issues and updates in community meetings and disaster assistance centers. • Determine through testing the potential for chemical contamination from distribution systems. • Include updated messaging in tools. Consider evidence of chemical contaminants in water supplies from damaged or destroyed piping and distribution systems. • Ensure messaging is available online and via print and in the primary languages spoken in the community.

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