shorebirds (Jackson & Straw, 2021). However, some plants can survive long periods of flooding, such as Common Reed Phragmites australis (unless it is completely submerged, which will eventually kill it; Malcolm Ausden, pers. comm.) or Smooth Cordgrass Spartina alterniflora , in which case physical removal may also be required (see Cutts et al., 2024a-c). Reeds can be managed by regular mowing, but consideration should be taken for non- shorebirds that use reedbeds (Boulord et al. , 2012; Kubacka et al. , 2014). Nests washing away is a common cause of breeding failure in coastal habitats, therefore, if using flooding to reduce vegetation, this should occur outside of the breeding season (Ward Hagermeijer, pers. comm.). Herbicide: Herbicide could be an option for problematic species. For example, at a site that was invaded by willow scrub Salix sp . in the UK, the willow were removed and their stumps treated with herbicide. Note that little is known about the long term effect of herbicide on birds in the wild (as far as we are aware). Experimental studies on Japanese Quail Coturnix japonica suggests there may be a cumulative effect of glyphosate exposure (Ruuskanen et al. , 2020a,b). Those fed with glyphosate-contaminated seeds from 10 to 52 weeks of age had a different gut microbiome, decreased levels of male testosterone and slightly lower embryonic development compared to a control group, but there was no clear effect on reproduction, in terms of testis size and egg production. Eggs collected from these species contained glyphosate residues but there was no effect on the egg quality. Vegetation on islands: Vegetation on islands can be trickier and more intensive to manage than on the mainland. Lowering the elevation of islands so they are closer to the water level can help reduce vegetation growth (Akers & Allcorn, 2006), but be aware of the risk of flooding of nests at (occasional) high water levels. If removing vegetation from islands, equipment may need to be floated across on rafts (Akers & Allcorn, 2006).
5. Other sources of information
Guidance on habitat management for roosting shorebirds: Jackson M.V. & Straw P. (eds.) (2021) Coastal Hightide Shorebird Habitat Management Guidelines . Figshare. https://doi.org/ 10.6084/m9.figshare.16628560.v1 Review of factors affecting how birds use wetlands: Ma Z., Cai Y., Li B. & Chen J. (2010) Managing wetland habitats for waterbirds: an international perspective. Wetlands , 30 , 15 – 27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-009-0001-6
References
Akers P. & Allcorn R.I. (2006) Re-profiling of islands in a gravel pit to improve nesting conditions for terns Sterna and small gulls Larus at Dungeness RSPB reserve, Kent, England. Conservation Evidence , 3 , 96 – 98. Available at: https://conservationevidencejournal.com/reference/pdf/2236
Ausden M. (2007) Habitat Management for Conservation: A Handbook of Techniques , Oxford University Press: New York.
Bancroft G.T., Gawlik D.E. & Rutchey K. (2002) Distribution of wading birds relative to vegetation and water depths in the northern Everglades of Florida, USA. Waterbirds: The International Journal of Waterbird Biology , 25 , 265 – 277. https://doi.org/10.1675/1524-4695(2002)025[0265:DOWBRT]2.0.CO;2
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