awareness doesn’t necessarily lead to any behaviour change and may even stimulate undesirable behaviours (Christiano & Niemand, 2007).
Signs can be used as a method of preventing human access or providing information about vulnerable species. The sign pictured here is from a constructed roost site in Moreton Bay, Queensland, one of Australia's most important regions for shorebirds. It illustrates where public access is prohibited, to avoid disturbing shorebirds that use the small area, which is surrounded by human housing during high tide. [Credit: Micha V. Jackson].
Bans/restrictions on activities: Disturbance-causing activities could be banned entirely (e.g. walking dogs on beaches) or restricted (e.g. setting speed limits for boats, setting lower altitude limits for drone flights; Cantu de Leija et al., 2023). Bans/restrictions may only be necessary during the breeding season, or at other times of year when shorebirds are particularly sensitive to disturbance. Bans/restrictions will need to be communicated to the relevant user groups, for example through education programmes, signage or wardens. Wardens: Professional or volunteer wardens can help to enforce access restrictions and educate people. On a beach in Florida, USA, the number of people entering a protected area (surrounded by symbolic fencing) was around nine times lower when an identifiable “Bir d Steward” was present compared to when there was no Steward (Forys, 2011).
Viewing platforms: Viewing platforms can be constructed so that people can view birds from a safe distance (Burger et al. , 2004).
Remove/avoid elevated structures: Avian predators may use elevated structures to oversee open areas and this causes increased predation pressure (Ward Hagemeijer, pers. comm.). It is suggested to avoid constructing habitat close to existing points with an overview for predators and avoid erection of new view-points, or even consider removing existing elevated structures (Ward Hagemeijer, pers. comm.). Catching/culling/restricting access of animals: Animals that may prey upon or disturb shorebirds can be excluded using anti-predator fences (Williams et al. , 2013). These can be constructed deep into the ground (to exclude burying animals) and may be electrified (e.g. Dinsmore et al. , 2014). Wire mesh with 30-mm-diameter holes should exclude medium- and large-sized mammals (Robley et al. , 2007). Fences/cages can be placed on individual nests, but be wary that this may lead birds to abandon their nests (Vaske et al. , 1994). Alternatively, with appropriate licences and ethical considerations, animals could be controlled by trapping or culling.
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