neutral attitudes and risk assessments of GMO foods. Information source was unrelated to changes in attitude, while the more prior knowledge one had was associated with less of an attitude change, and prior risk perception was associated with more of an attitude change. Thus, consumers who view genetic modification as risky are more likely to change their attitudes as a result of new information, while the opposite was seen in those who were familiar with the technology. In qualitative interviews, students expressed interest in having more information on the topic, suggesting that there is an ability to affect the attitudes of those who lack knowledge about genetic modification. Ozel et al. (2009) surveyed 325 Turkish high school students about their attitudes toward biotechnology in general. These students had fairly low knowledge of biotechnology and mixed attitudes, depending on the biotech applications. Specifically, they seemed more cautious and less accepting of bioengineering of food products (versus cloning to protect endangered species or produce insulin) and believed that consumers need more information about genetically modified products. There were no significant demographic differences. Niankara and Adkins (2020) studied 17,981 teenagers, using data from the 2015 Programme for International Students Assessment. They were curious about whether there was convergence of attitudes toward GMOs among teenagers in NAFTA countries. Self-reported technological awareness of GMOs had a mean of 2.55 (2=Heard but can’t explain, 3=Know and can provide general explanation). Self-reported technological expectations concerning GMOs had a mean of 2.28 (2=stay the same, 3=it will improve over time, 1=it will get worse over the next 20 years). The average respondent was somewhat interested in ecosystem services and sustainability but more interested in how science can help prevent diseases. In terms of information sources, they regularly visited ecological websites, followed new blogs, read books and websites on broad science, read science articles in magazines and newspapers, and attended science clubs. They were least interested in television programs on broad science. Forty-nine percent of respondents had either never heard of GMOs or had heard of GMOs but were unable to explain them. In terms of GMO expectations, the majority were optimistic and believed it would improve with time; less than 20% believed it would get worse. In terms of GMO awareness, Canadian youth are more aware of GMOs, followed by Mexican youth and then the U.S. youth (except for those who are familiar with and able to provide detailed explanations of GMOs, in which case U.S. youth were most aware, followed by Mexican youth. In terms of GMO expectations, Canadians are more positive, followed by Mexicans and then Americans. Students who were more interested in ecosystem services, sustainability, and science as a means of disease prevention, and who scored higher on an index of science enjoyment, had higher awareness of GMOs. However, those who regularly visited ecological websites, followed news blogs, read books and websites on broad science, read science articles in magazines and newspapers, and attended science clubs were less likely to be aware of GMOs. Older students, wealthier students, male students, students with higher economic/social/cultural status, and those whose fathers had higher education were more likely to be aware of GMOs, while those whose mothers had higher education were less likely to be aware. Increased interest in ecosystem services and sustainability, interest in science as a means of disease prevention, and normalized science enjoyment increased optimism about the evolution of GMOs over the next 20 years. All sources of information positively affected these expectations, except for broad science television programs. Older students had increased optimism about the evolution of GMOs, while wealthier students had decreased optimism, and higher economic/social/cultural index students had increased optimism. The more educated these students’
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