3.2 Amphibians
limestone sinks with a groundwater connection). However, many upland, isolated wetlands would have historically been maintained as open, “grassy” ponds through a combination of hyrdoperiod and fre regime processes (De Steven and Toner 2004) . Because of historic fre exclu- sion, or problems with the timing of prescribed fre, many isolated ponds that were once open-canopied have become forested. Dense canopy in these ponds reduces herbaceous vegetation needed for amphibian egg attachment, changes the pond’s pH, and can dras- tically alter the hydroperiod such that ponds dry out too early in the year for amphibian larval development to be completed. Restoration eforts in wetlands have included removal of organic and woody debris by mechanical means, as well as the use of prescribed fre. Typically, greater numbers of spe- cies of amphibians utilize ponds following restoration. For example, two wetlands restored in the Sandhills exhibited greater numbers of species after restoration than before. One pond supported only 3 species of amphibians prior to restoration eforts, and none were SGCN. After management work was conducted, 12 species of amphibians were detected using the wetland, including 2 SGCN species (Pine Barrens Treefrog and Eastern Tiger Salamander). Another pond also supported only 3 species (none SGCN) prior to work, and 9 species after, including 2 SGCN species (Pine Barrens Treefrog and Oak Toad). Management recommendations include the need to protect known breeding sites as well as nearby and surrounding uplands; restore degraded sites and maintain existing sites through application of prescribed fre during appropriate seasons and at required intervals; protect corridors connecting nearby and adjacent breeding sites; investigate captive breed- ing methods and opportunities for population augmentation and restoration; and monitor populations for evidence of disease and pathogens so that protective measures can be designed and implemented when needed. Logs, tree falls, and other woody debris can provide microhabitat and shelter that can protect amphibians from high temperatures and govern dehydration rates that can occur during the hottest and driest times of the year (Shoo et al . 2011) . Retention of down wood reduces desiccation and promotes amphibian survival in modifed landscapes such as harvested forests (Rittenhouse et al. 2008, Shoo et al . 2011) . Studies are needed to increase under- standing of microhabitat requirements of amphibians and to investigate artifcial shelter or burrows use (Lettink and Cree 2007; Arida and Bull 2008; Shoo et al. 2011) . Another example of important conservation measures that beneft amphibian species include protection and restoration of ephemeral ponds and wetlands on Sandhills Game Lands and within Croatan National Forest. Success of these restoration projects was demonstrated by the large number of Eastern Tiger Salamanders and Eastern Spadefoots that used the restored wetlands during the frst breeding season after restoration work was fnished.
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2015 NC Wildlife Action Plan
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