Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 9069
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Each stage also includes additional processes in addition to these main processes, such as raw materials production, energy production, etc. 2.1.2. Silverskin Paper Production In the case of CSS paper production, the production of the CSS itself was also included in the system. Coffee Silverskin is a waste residue and can therefore be considered either a byproduct or a co-product when performing a LCA [26]. How it is considered influences the system boundaries and the allocation procedures. In this case study, CSS was assumed to be a byproduct and therefore no mass allocation during coffee production was performed. The system boundary starts with the transportation of CSS to the micronization facility.
2.1.3. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)
Primary and secondary data were used. The study retrieved most of the data for the main processes from Ecoinvent v3.0 [27], including the production of pulps, paper, alkyl ketene dimer, brighteners, potato starch, pesticide, glyphosate, coffee cultivation, eucalyptus plantation, paper recycling, etc. This data was then inserted into the GaBi database [28]. However, several background-based processes and flows that are available in Ecoinvent v3.0 are not present in the database (e.g., sulphur dioxide production, sodium sulphate production, etc.), and, as a result, were not included. When possible, proxy processes were used. All the data on national quantities and fluxes of materials for paper making as well as all the data related to the country of origin and the main pulp and paper producers at both the national and international levels were provided by FAVINI srl and ASSOCARTA [25]. Data on the technology typology that was used to produce virgin pulp were taken from a technical report published by the Energy Technology Systems Analysis Programme [29] and by Silva et al., 2015 [30]. According to the results, the sulphate pulp (or kraft pulp) was the most frequently used technology. Data on the production process for pulps were obtained from Ecoinvent v3.0. It was assumed that the whole wood produced was used exclusively for paper production. Data on the materials and energy used for papermaking, as well as the origin of the material used for papermaking, are provided by FAVINI srl, as were data. All data for the transportation processes and background processes (energy, material, chemicals production, etc.) were obtained from Ecoinvent and GaBi databases. Data on coffee cultivation was obtained from literature [16,31,32], while the process of cultivation is provided by Ecoinvent v3.0. Data needed to estimate the energy and materials consumptions of the roasting process was unavailable. Only energy consumption data was available for micronization. These have been indicated by FAVINI srl. In the following sections, the inventory of each main process is explained in detail. 2.1.3.1. Eucalyptus Plantation and Eucalyptus Pulp Production Dataset inventories of the production of Eucalyptus plantation were obtained from two dedicated LCA studies: Silva et al., 2013 [33] and Silva et al., 2015 [30]. Data refers to 1 kg of logs oven dry with a density of 474 kg/m 3 . The process that was assessed in the studies included seedling cultivation, soil preparation, seedling transplanting, forest management, harvesting, and transport. Since the majority of pulp production companies are located close to the Eucalyp- tus cultivation sites (mostly in S ã o Paulo and Bahia) [34], a transport distance from the Eucalyptus plantation to the pulp mill infrastructure of 200 km carried out by truck was assumed (Euro 3, 34–40 t). The process of Eucalyptus virgin pulp production was taken from Ecoinvent v3.0 (process name: “Sulphate pulp, from Eucalyptus, unbleached, at plant”).
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