Polymers 2023 , 15 , 1393
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Figure 1. Plastic waste generated by different industrial sectors [2].
Packaging material has a vital role in product functionality, efficiency, processing parameters and environmentally friendly customer satisfaction [4,5]. Petroleum-based conventional plastic packaging is mostly non-biodegradable, with rising and unstable prices due to fluctuations in the availability of petroleum sources. Packaging disposal is now a primary concern threatening to pollute water supplies, sewer systems, rivers and lakes [6]. Over time, plastic products fragment into micro- and nano-sized particles that cause serious health issues [7]. Microplastics have been detected in 15 human biological components including breastmilk, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, blood, lung, liver, kidney, spleen, placenta, meconium, skin, hair, head, face, hand, saliva, colectomy specimens, faeces and sputum [8]. Babies ingest 553 to 4,550,000 microplastic particles/day through feeding bottles [9]. This microplastic exposure directly impacts the digestive, reproductive, central nervous, immune and circulatory systems during early developmental stages. Pollution caused by plastics requires waste management action by innovation, im- proved product and package design and increased recycling. This requires organised legislative actions and international cooperation. The statistics indicate that the utilisation of plastic resources in the takeaway food industry has mushroomed [10]. China is the largest consumer of takeaway food, generating 350 kT/day of plastic food packaging, with 40 billion food boxes discarded per day in 2019 [11]. Recently, the COVID-19 crisis caused a 2.2% reduction in the use of plastics in 2020 but the volumes of takeaway packaging and consumption of plastic medical equipment increased as economic activity resumed in 2021. This upward progression of the use and consumption of plastics must be critically addressed [12,13]. This study investigated alternatives to traditional synthetic plastic packaging by adopting a sustainable, renewable and biodegradable approach [14,15]. Natural fibres are commonly used as reinforcement in composite materials [16]. They play pivotal roles in attaining some of the specific needs in composite preparations. Recently, the utilisa- tion of natural fibres has increased because of ecological concerns; they are lightweight, naturally degradable, CO 2 neutral and readily available as renewable materials [17,18]. Most importantly, due to their vulnerability to living organisms, they are biodegradable and do not impact the ecosystem [19]. Consequently, incorporating natural fibres into
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