Energies 2023 , 16 , 746
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new bioproducts. In spite of several opportunities and existing pilot plants, the number of large-scale retrofits in mills is low even though many technologies are available [17]. Releasing the potential of PPI as a producer of new products requires a stable and consistent political framework including, for example, ambitious targets for bioenergy use or quota obligations [61]. Additionally, the PPI should have clear future prospects for affordable raw materials. Currently, the role of biomass in the EU’s decarbonization strategies is slightly unclear, and the role of forests as carbon sinks as well as possible competition on biomass with other sector creates uncertainties.
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$'W DLUGU\WRQ%'W ERQHGU\WRQ +7& K\GURWKHUPDOFDUERQL]DWLRQ Figure 5. A northern stand-alone mill producing 600,000 ADt/a of softwood pulp and its future opportunities. 3.4.3. Carbon Capture and Production of E-Fuels Pulp mills have a unique opportunity to turn to carbon sinks using BECCS/U [16]. Achieving a carbon-neutral society might not be possible without carbon capture technolo- gies [62], but there has been little progress on CCS and especially BECCS. The possibilities of BECCS in the PPI were already discussed at the beginning of the 21st century [63], and Jönsson et al. [64] estimated that the European PPI has a large potential to capture CO 2 (60MtCO 2 /a). Post-combustion carbon capture using monoethanolamine (MEA) is a commercially available process and thus the most studied option for pulp mills [64–67]. The process consumes approximately 3.8 GJ/tCO 2 and 0.1 MWh/tCO 2 , of heat and electric- ity [68], which means capturing 60 MtCO 2 /a would lead to additional heat and electricity consumption of 228 PJ/a and 6 TWh/a. In addition to the effects on energy balance, ques- tions on storage sites, transportation, utilization, and economic feasibility exist. Several previous studies underline a lack of economic incentives and clear policy framework, and they call for recognizing negative CO 2 emissions and crediting all removed CO 2 emissions apart from the origin [65,69–73]. BECCS will not be adopted in mills without clear incen- tives. Santos et al. [74] suggest that a negative CO 2 credit of 42 e/tCO 2 could overcome the costs of carbon capture via calcium looping, and Onarheim et al. [65] claim that a negative emissions credit of 60–80 e/tCO 2 is needed to make BECCS attractive for the mills. Captured CO 2 can be combined with hydrogen (H 2 ) to produce e-fuels such as methane, methanol, gasoline, and ethanol [75]. E-fuels may play a versatile role in the future energy system: they can substitute fossil fuels in energy production as well as in the chemicals industry, balance intermittent renewable energy production by providing energy storage and flexible load, and decrease the need for electricity grid reinforcement by acting as an energy carrier [76]. The production of e-fuels consumes a lot of electric- ity. For methane, methanol, and dimethyl ether, the electricity-to-fuel efficiencies are in the range of 30–75% (1.33–3.33 MWh el /MWh fuel ), and the production requires roughly 0.21–0.28 tCO 2 /MWh fuel [77]. As the PPI is a stationary producer of both biogenic CO 2 and renewable electricity, and the mills have an opportunity to utilize side streams of e-fuel
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