Materials 2022 , 15 , 4542
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Table3. Chemical composition (%) of alternative NWLMs and agricultural residues (black bars) as compared with wood (softwoods and hardwoods combined, and green background bars), adopted from references.
Chemical Composition, (%) Cellulose Hemicelluloses Lignin Extractives
Material
References
Ash
NWLM Bamboo
[45–48]
Flax
[45,47,48] [45,47,48] [45,47,48]
Hemp Kenaf
Miscanthus
[49]
Sisal
[45,48,50]
Grow care residues Kiwi pruning
[51] [52] [53]
Orange pruning
Pinecone
Vine pruning
[54,55]
Harvest residues Banana wood
[45–48]
Barley stalks Canola stalks Corn stalks Cotton stalks
[56] [57] [58] [55] [59] [60]
Datepalm Oil palm
Pineapple leaves
[50,56] [45,56] [55,56]
Rice stalks
Sorghum stalks Sunflower stalks
[55] [58]
Tomato stalks Wheat stalks
[45,56]
Process residues Almond husks
[61]
Coconut coir Coffee husks Cornhusks Durian peel
[45,47,48,56]
[33] [58] [62] [63] [64] [63] [65]
Hazelnut husks
Oat husk
Oil palm fruit husks
[59,60]
Peanut husks Pineapple peel
Ricehusks
[45,48] [45,66]
Sugarcane bagasse
Although the NWLMs contain similar components as wood, their proportion varies. For instance, flax and hemp have a considerably higher cellulose content than wood, i.e., the respective cellulose contents in flax and hemp are 65–85% and 60–68%, while their lignin content is obviously lower, i.e., flax has 1–4% lignin, and hemp has 3–10% [45,67]. Miscanthus, however, has a similar chemical composition to wood by having 40–60% cellulose, 20–40% hemicelluloses, 10–30% lignin, and 2.2–4.9% ash content [49]. This is also valid for different types of bamboo grasses [45–48].
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