Cellulose
Graphical abstract
material use is in line with Circular Economy (CE) objectives, which aims to maximize value at each point in a product’s life by keeping products, compo- nents and materials at their highest utility at all times (Stahel 2016). Currently, landfilling is the dominant method of packaging waste disposal, followed by recycling, incineration, and composting (Valde´s et al. 2014). However, it is considered as ‘‘leakage’’ from circular system, meaning that valuable resources are wasted and lost from environmental and economical point of view (Cheshire 2016). The most favorable way for transformation of ligno-cellulosic wastes is by recy- cling. The feasibility of recycled fibers for the production of high value-added papers to be used for packaging purposes was recently reported by Tarre´s et al. (2018). However, fibres recovered from paper wastes after re-pulping process have reduced mechan- ical properties. According to Wistara and Young (1999) tensile strength, bursting strength, and apparent density of the pulps decreases when recycling paper. After a maximum of 6–7 recycling cycles, fibres become too short for further processing. Conse- quently, additives (new fibres or fillers) are necessary to enrich recycled pulp and to minimize depreciation of its quality (Villanueva and Wenzel 2007). In some circumstances increased use of fillers leads to decrease paper strength (Balea et al. 2018). Moreover, physical recycling may be impractical in case of packaging materials contaminated with foods or other biological substances (Kale et al. 2007). Composting paper waste is considered as one of the less costly disposal routes, and is an option for recycling (Lo´pez Alvarez et al. 2009). In this scenario, biodegradability becomes a desirable feature for several everyday products, including packaging. Although ultimate biodegrad- ability in the natural environment is important, sustainable packaging products are required to biode- grade in a controlled and industrially acceptable way (Scott and Wiles 2001). However, the main factor that affects the formation and manufacturing of bio-based packaging is related to economic aspects. Biodegradable pots, developed as an alternative for traditional petroleum derived plastic containers are environmentally friendly and frequently used for silvicultural and agricultural purposes. Such contain- ers reduce overall costs, as seedlings with the bio- degradable pots can be planted quickly while avoiding root disturbance or any interruption to plant growth.
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sand fores agricultural
Keywords
Waste paper Paper pots Cereal bran
Degradation rate Soil FT-NIR
Introduction
Over 67 million tons of packaging wastes are gener- ated annually in the EU, containing up to 30% of slowly degrading plastics. The Packaging and Pack- aging Waste Directive, which standardizes the pro- duction of packaging materials, waste management and the use of recycling, composting, and energy recovery by incineration regulates the bio-based packing sector (European Parliament and Council Directive 1994). There are clear targets regarding waste reduction in the EU. Seventy-five percent of packaging waste should be recycled by 2030 (Niero and Hauschild 2017). Re-utilization of waste paper is therefore important for reducing waste generation but also for saving wood resources (Kose et al. 2016). According to Chartered Institution of Waste Manage- ment, the reduction of waste quantity might save 72 billion € per year and create over 400,000 new jobs in Europe (Cheshire 2016). The increased use of bio-based materials is essen- tial in order to reduce the environmental impact of materials, including reuse and ultimately, disposal. It is expected that use of biodegradable materials will contribute to sustainability and reduction in the environmental impact associated with disposal costs (Song et al. 2009). Moreover, increased bio-based
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