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PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE
°C) (Song et al. 2009; Endres and Siebert-Raths 2011; Hermann et al. 2011). Industrially compostable certifications, such as Din-Geprüft industrial compostable and OK Compost are following EN 13432 testing (Kale et al. 2007; Song et al. 2009; Hermann et al. 2011). There are also other certifications, e.g. , “Compostable”, which are based on ASTM D6400-12 (2012) (Kale et al. 2007). Legislation The safety of packages and packaging materials are secured by a variety of laws and regulations. General product safety directive 2001/95/EC (European Commission 2001), food contact material regulation EC No 1935/2004 (European Commission 2004), the regulation considering manufacturing of food contact materials EC No 2023/2006 (European Commission 2006) (GMP Regulation), and the positive list of substances for plastic packaging materials EC No 10/2011 (European Commission 2011) are a few of the guidelines which food contact materials are required to fulfill (Leminen et al. 2013). In addition, there are regulations and recommendations used globally for food contact materials (Leminen et al. 2013). They include those from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung (BfR) recommendations (Andersson 2008; Leminen et al. 2013) and Chinese Standards, e.g. , Food-Contact Use Paper, Paperboard and Paper Products GB 4806.8-2016 (2016), and GB 9685-2016 (2016) National Food Safety Standard: Standard for the Use of Additives in Food Contact Materials. Other regulations and national laws need also to be considered (Leminen et al. 2013). The European Commission (May 2018) has published a proposal for a directive of the European Council on the reduction of the impact of certain plastic products on the environment. The goal is to prevent and reduce marine litter from single-use plastics and plastic fishing gear. Some products are being banned from the market, e.g. , plastic cutlery, straws, and plates, whereas the use of plastic cups and food containers need to be reduced by the Member States. Among these actions, there are other rules that Member States and their producers must fulfill (European Commission 2018). One example of a national ordinance, which is a driving factor for increasing the use of bio-based polymers, is the French ordinance Décret n° 2016-1170 (2016). It requires all disposable tableware ( e.g. , cups and plates) to be home-compostable and produced from 50% renewable materials by January 2020. Furthermore, the required renewable content will be raised to 60% by January 2025. Barrier Materials In the European Union (EU) legislation for plastic materials, Regulation (EU) No. 10/2011, a functional barrier is defined as a layer that prevents substances from migrating from behind the barrier layer into the food. To avoid confusion, this review considers the term “matter” to refer to both ideal and non- ideal gases, vapor, or liquid, whereas by “gas” we refer to gases, such as those in the atmosphere. Permeating matter displays two primary ways of transport through film material: either by transmitting through the entire thickness of a solid, homogeneous film, or by transmission through its defects, such as pores or pinholes. As porosity and pinholes resemble an unwanted heterogeneous film structure, this review will focus on the former case. Permeating matter undergoes three physical phenomena referred to as absorption, diffusion, and desorption (Paine and Paine1992; Auvinen and Lahtinen 2008; Nair et al. 2014).
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Helanto et al. (2019). “ Bio-based barriers ,” B io R esources 14(2), Pg #s to be added.
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