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journal of materials research and technology 2022;20:4630 e 4658
Table 9 e Physical and mechanical properties of particleboard manufactured from selected bamboo species. Raw Materials Adhesive type Adhesive (%) Density (kg/m 3 ) MOR (MPa) MOE (MPa) IB (MPa) TS, 24h (%) WA, 24h (%)
References
Bambusabalcooa Bambusa vulgaris
UF UF UF UF UF UF UF
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
849 873 561 641 721 754
15.7 17.7
1936.9 2144.2
N/A 16.5 N/A 15.1
47.9 45.9
[141]
Gigantochloascortechinii
12.52 1959 17.95 2684 20.21 2934 13.85 N/A
0.45 0.72 0.88 0.62
11.07
45.75 39.52 37.16
[142]
11.6
12.69
Bambusa vulgaris
23.1
N/A
[143] [144]
Dendrocalamus giganteus
630.74 705.29
7.48 4.76
1515.55 N/A 8.58
48.23 58.84
Castor oil
711.14
N/A 13.53
outperformed mixed-species particleboard. Despite having a higher compaction ratio, oil palm trunk particleboard had lower strength properties than pure rubberwood particle- board [9]. Because the oil palm trunk has a lower density, it takes up a large volume per unit weight in the core layer. At the same time, it resulted in a larger surface area per unit weight, making adequate resin coverage difficult. As a result, adequate particle e particle bonding was not possible, nega- tively impacting the boards ' strength properties. However, the authors concluded that if processing parameters such as pressing temperature and time were carefully manipulated, oil palm trunk had a promising potential as a partial replacement for rubberwood in producing particleboard [9,150,151]. It was also reported that binderless particleboard made from oil palm trunks met the requirements of Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) A 5908 type 8 (MOR 8 MPa) [152]. As a lignocellulosic material, oil palm frond has the po- tential to be used effectively in the production of composite panels. Unfortunately, compared to other biomasses, the use of oil palm fronds in particleboard production is relatively limited. The oil palm frond is thought to be a suitable material for the production of binderless particleboard. According to Laemsak and Okuma [153], the hemicellulose content of oil palm fronds is 1.5 e 3 times that of wood. Aside from that, lignin could be removed from the cell wall of oil palm fronds using steam-explosion treatment [152]. After steam-explosion treatment, a good bonding strength could be created between oil palm frond fiber and these chemical substances during the hot-pressing process. Lignin and polysaccharides are the main chemical components contributing to the oil palm frond ' s ability to self-bind [154]. EFB produces approximately four million tonnes of fiber per year [155]. The use of EFB as an alternative raw material in manufacturing particleboard is considered viable [156]. EFB has fiber strength comparable to rubberwood fiber. Because of its high toughness and cellulose content, EFB is well suited for composite applications [157,158]. Previous research, however, has shown that combining EFB with other hardwood species in particleboard production is a more viable option [159]. When compared to its OPT and OPF counterparts, EFB parti- cleboard frequently has inferior properties. Zakaria et al. [160] prepared a citric acid solution containing 12.5 and 25% wt tapioca starch, which was then used as a binder for particle- board made from oil palm biomass (empty fruit bunch, oil palm trunk, and oil palm frond). A 12.5 wt% tapioca starch addition was beneficial, as evidenced by improved mechanical
and physical properties. The particleboard made from oil palm frond and trunk bonded with 87.5 wt% citric acid and 12.5 wt% starch met the minimum MOR requirement for type 8 particleboard specified in Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) A5908. Date palm ( Phoenix dactylifera L.), one of the oldest fruit crops in the Middle East and North Africa, has also been used in particleboard production. The addition of palm frond pruning to the MDF mat significantly improved IB in the pro- duced panels [161]. The performance of particleboard manu- factured from date palm branches showed that the panels ' MOR, IB, and TS values fulfilled the technical standard re- quirements [162]. The date palm ' s trunk and rachis or branches were used to produce particleboard in the study by Amirou et al. [163]. PF- and MUF-bonded particleboard fabri- cation from date palm trunk and branches is deemed viable. PF-bonded boards have better performance than MUF-bonded boards. Ghofrani et al. [48] recommended that branches of the date palm are a good replacement for fibrous material for particleboard production. Particleboard produced is suitable for indoor applications, including absorbing noise, maintain- ing indoor living spaces ' temperature, and partially or completely substituting insulation boards in wooden con- structions. Betel palm ( Areca catechu Linn.) is grown for its seed crops, a fruit locally called Pinang. The trunks of betel palm were chipped, and particleboard was produced from it. Betel palm can be used to make value-added panels without significantly affecting board properties [164]. Binderless particleboard from oil palm has also been pro- duced by Hashim et al. [165]. The study suggested that core parts, mid-parts, and fronds of the oil palm trees could be used to produce binderless particleboard with acceptable MOR and IB of 10.9 N/mm 2 and 0.5 N/mm 2 , respectively. The good properties of the binderless oil palm particleboard might be associated with the pseudo-plasticity and viscoelasticity of starch-rich parenchyma cells found in trunks. Furthermore, the hemicellulose content of oil palm fronds was 1.5 e 3 times higher than common hardwood species [153]. This may result in improved particle bonding and lead to satisfactory bending properties. Unfortunately, the WA and TS of the panels per- formed poorly.
4.8.
Summary
Based on the findings of the above section, it is noted that agricultural biomass could serve as potential raw materials for
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