Labor Amoris Edition 4: Spring 2024

St George's Sixth Form Journal

LABOR AMORIS

EDITION 4 | SPRING 2024

EDITORIAL

Hello and Welcome to St George’s Academic Journal: Labor Amoris

Moving into the new year brings opportunities for students to delve deeper into their extracurricular interests, enabling the creation of another range of diverse and thought- provoking articles from the Sixth Form. This latest instalment of the journal displays a different focus than the last edition’s climate and environment theme, with many articles centring around language and literature. Alongside this, whilst some students opted to write about culture and society, others delved into the nature of human thinking, both from a philosophical and psychological perspective. Various issues in STEM are also dissected, touching on topical technological advancements that showcase the breadth and depth of interests in the Sixth Form. The literature and arts review segment also returns for the second time since its introduction in the last edition, alongside short recommendations of various media. This edition will be the last I edit for Labor Amoris. It has been a privilege to be able to experience first-hand the passion and drive for learning displayed by Sixth Form students, and I have the utmost gratitude for all those who have contributed. Seeing the maturity and depth of thought in the articles is a true testament to the dedication and ardour of students at St George’s. As we navigate through an increasingly complex society, it is vital that we continue to promote diversity of thought and sustain the curiosity that allows us to push the boundaries of our own thinking and Labor Amoris allows the Sixth Form to do just that. All opinions expressed are those of contributing students. No work is restricted by a prescribed format, and all writers are free and encouraged to explore the topics they are personally interested in. Therefore, each article will be truly unique to each student. Hannah Nunan Editor

EDITORIAL CONTRIBUTIONS: Martha Doyle Lorcan Gebruers Keira McEwan

by Yana Bida

Special Thanks To... Ellie Richards - Director of Marketing & Admissions

CONTENTS

Contents LABOR AMORIS

24 32 Language & Literature HANNAH NUNAN CAELAN MARSHALL DAISY FEAST CAT PATTERSON LORCAN GEBRUERS

Philosophy & Psychology DAN RIDDLE LEAH CLARKE CHARLOTTE DARGUE

6 STEM

AMY NOLAN JJ BREEN

OWEN BROWN MARTHA DOYLE

Culture & Society

4 4

DAISY BROOKER AMELIA PRESCOT RACHEL HOPKINSON

Arts Review ISSY STRATFORD DAN RIDDLE KEIRA MCEWAN HANNAH NUNAN

STEM

“From bacteria to viruses, fungi to small insects, they all play a crucial role in maintaining skin health, immune system regulation and barrier protection.”

AMY NOLAN

Staphylococcus epidermis is the most abundant bacterial resident of the skin microbiome. It protects the skin by competing with potentially harmful bacteria for resources. It also produces antimicrobial substances that help the defence against pathogens. The Corynebacterium species contribute to the breakdown of sweat, creating body odour. However, they are also a potent inhibitor of fungal infections, such as athlete’s foot. A particularly unpopular microorganism, the Demodex mite, inhabits hair follicles and is generally harmless, though an overabundance is associated with certain skin conditions, such as rosacea. Recent evidence from the advancements in technology has led to a shift in our understanding of acne and the microbiome. For the first time, we can see what is happening on our skin during a breakout. The main issue causing acne is the overproduction of sebum leading to clogged pores. This provides nutrients for Cutibacterium acnes, which is abundant in our hair follicles and can activate the immune system to cause inflammation in the skin, leading to acne. Surprisingly, the problem isn’t that there is too much C. acnes, but that there is too much of one strain. An imbalance between strains increases inflammation,

which will increase sebum excretion. However, what is not known is what drives the initial shift to more sebum production. Currently, it is assumed to be due to a plethora of interacting factors, such as hormones, genetics, and lifestyle. New research suggests that our skin microbiome may also be involved in ageing. Collagen maintains the structure of the skin, but the quantity and quality of our collagen production declines with age, leading to the skin losing its elasticity. A recent study showed that C. acnes and Staph epidermis were associated with a decline in collagen levels. However, it is currently unclear whether these bacteria cause a loss of collagen, or a loss of collagen is what changes the microbiome. Also, researchers found that the microbiome of older participants had a greater proportion of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, compared with younger volunteers, though it is still unknown if this affects the physical signs of ageing. Research on the skin microbiome is ongoing, and new insights are continually uncovering the complexity and importance of skin health. Efforts are being made to develop skincare products and treatments that support a healthy balance of the skin microbiome.

The Skin Microbiome AMY NOLAN

Our skin microbiome is a diverse community of microorganisms on the skin’s surface. From bacteria to viruses, fungi to small insects, they all play a crucial role in maintaining skin health, immune system regulation and barrier protection. First formed from the mother’s biome, this collection of microorganisms stays on the skin for a whole lifespan, though it continues to develop throughout life, depending on age, living environment, social interactions, and pets.

The skin is a rough terrain of varied habitats with an abundance of specialised niches that support a wide range of microorganisms. In general, the skin is cool, acidic, and desiccated, but distinct habitats are determined by skin temperature, hair follicles and glands. Sebum from the sebaceous glands create a warm moist environment, acting as a host to high microbial diversity. Sweat also alters the moisture levels and nutrient availability, so exercise can temporarily influence the microbiome.

STEM

Now and Then:

JJ BREEN How AI could change music forever

incomplete demos. After the mixing and re-recording of two of the songs had been complete, all that was left to do was finish ‘Now and Then’. The only problem was the vocals were too quiet compared to the piano on the old tape recording. Unless they completely removed John Lennon from the song, they would not be able to finish it. Unfortunately, the Ex-Beatles could not reach a satisfactory solution as to how to solve their issue, and so the song remained unreleased. They vowed to return to it in the future when the technology became available to do the song justice.

George Harrison, guitarist of The Beatles, passed away on the 29th of November 2001. Due to this unexpected loss, they would not go back to ‘Now and Then’ until 2022. At this point, they now had the technology to work around the challenges presented to them by the song due to an algorithm created by director Peter Jackson. In 2021, Jackson released a documentary on The Beatles, using archival footage from the recording sessions for their 12th and final album ‘Let it Be’. In order to improve the clarity of speech from this footage, Peter Jackson utilised AI to separate the voices from the background noise. Paul McCartney took an interest in this technology and wished to use it to finally finish ‘Now and Then’. With the rising presence of AI in day- to-day life, people have begun to discuss the ethics of using such technologies. Recently, the Writers’ Guild of America went on strike to try and guarantee that AI would not be used to replace them as studios latch onto this increasingly profitable market. Artists have had similar qualms about AI as software

such as DALL-E train from real works of art so as to generate its own content. The spotlight now falls on music. The Beatles have used AI as a tool rather than as a replacement for the creative act of writing music. That isn’t to say that songs couldn’t utilise AI in a more ‘unethical’ way. AI writing software could be used to write lyrics and AI designers could create album art, taking away a major creative process of the craft. So far, no songs have seriously utilised AI to replace the human process. However, given such a mainstream band like The Beatles have used the technology, it is very likely that other popular groups will begin to use it. Then, only time will tell what will happen to the industry. If people follow in The Beatles’ footsteps then the production of music will be changed for arguably the better as this will simply be a new technique to further musicianship. However, if a more malicious side of it surfaces, there is no doubt that we could see the face of music change forever.

On the 5th of October, 1962, John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr released their first single ‘Love me Do’ as the group ‘The Beatles’. Over 60 years later, and almost 50 years after they broke up, they would release their final song ‘Now and Then’. This song was due to come out in 1995, along with two other songs ‘Free as a bird’ and ‘Real love’. These three songs had been found in the apartment of John Lennon by his wife Yoko Ono. The three Ex-Beatles that were still alive at the time wished to honour the legacy of John Lennon by finishing his

STEM

The Future of Transport: OWEN BROWN How long until flying cars dominate the air?

THE AEROMOBIL 4.0

extending outward when changing modes for take-off, with the whole transition taking 3 minutes. In the area of safety, it contains pyrotechnic seatbelts, airbags, and most crucially a ballistic parachute so in the event of an in-flight failure, this can activate and guide the car to a controlled landing Nevertheless, this model poses many flaws that would have to be addressed and overcome to allow flying cars to become fully functional. One of the most restrictive aspects of AeroMobil is that it needs a 500m runway to take off, which would simply not be feasible if flying cars went mainstream, given land space and time constraints. Therefore, vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) would be utterly crucial for the integration of flying cars into our society. However, this is extremely challenging due to the “rocket equation phenomenon”; to overcome the force of gravity and achieve lift, extreme amounts of thrust must be

To start, it is worth exploring the technical workings of the latest prototype, the AeroMobil 4.0,

manufactured in Slovakia. At the heart of any motorized vehicle is the engine, of which the AeroMobil boasts 2, propelling the vehicle to top speeds of 224mph in air and 100mph on the ground. For drive mode, it features a 80Kw twin electric engine, which uses brushless DC (BLDC) motors to provide torque to the wheels via an electronic differential. BLDC motors are utilized due to their high power-to-weight ratio. The electronic differential allows control systems to actively distribute power between the 2 wheels individually, contributing to better handling and stability. The other engine is a turbocharged 4-cylinder boxer, delivering 300 horsepower. The boxer is coupled to a direct-drive pitch propeller, generating the thrust needed for movement above the ground. The wings feature a collapsible structure,

Flying cars have been a hallmark of science fiction for years, gracing the screens of countless blockbuster films throughout the last few decades. As a result, they are commonly relegated solely to the realm of futuristic fantasy. However, recent technological strides have edged the notion ever closer to reality and as of November 2023, numerous advanced prototypes have undergone successful testing. Ultimately, this prompts the question; What obstacles stand in the way of flying cars becoming fully integrated into our daily lives? The potential for a vast hovercar market lies in the enormous benefits they would impart to society and individual lives. At the forefront of their impact

is the drastic reduction of travel time. With the virtually unlimited space in the air for network routes, route length could be shortened massively, saving many people valuable time. Moreover, flying cars could achieve a top speed of 200mph, rendering a journey of the same distance in a standard car limited by 70mph speeds and road regulations around 3 times faster. Surprisingly, they could also mitigate pollution; researchers at the University of Michigan estimate that over 100km, a flying car would emit 52% less emissions. this is due to the cars minimising fumes let off when stationery and idling, coupled with a reduction in fuel consumption facilitated by their ability to take more direct routes.

STEM

Why are Jellyfish Taking Over the UK Coastline?

FIRST REGISTERED FLYING CAR ‘PAL-V’

grasp of humanity. Yet recent history has consistently shown technology can advance at a rapid pace, providing innovative solutions. The fate of these vehicles is tightly tied to autonomous driving, which if mastered, means a multitude of control systems driven by AI could ensure safe navigation through the airspace as well as communication with other vehicles to effectively eliminate the risk of crashes. In turn, this would instil public confidence, paving the way for the introduction of cars and their associated infrastructure. However, the time required to optimize these factors coupled with the uncertainty on battery technology could be lengthy. According to Back to the Future, we are 7 years overdue when it comes to flying cars. Ultimately, this will keep being pushed back until substantial scientific advancement propels technology enough for flying cars to become more efficient than their road counterpart. Researchers predict this could be around 2040, and until then motorways will reign champion around the planet.

provided by the engine. However, as you increase the engine size to accommodate this, the weight of the vehicle increases, necessitating even more thrust to achieve lift-off. The optimal solution lies in using extremely energy-dense batteries. However, battery technology has not evolved sufficiently to produce these yet. As a result, if VTOL cars were introduced in the near future, they would be extremely inefficient, being only able to travel small distances and carry minimal people as a trade-off. Another issue bound for harsh criticism is the safety measures. A minor mechanical failure could potentially lead to a life- threatening situation, so high-level flying systems, collision avoidance systems, and fail-safe mechanisms will need to evolve and be rigorously tested for governments to fully legalize flying cars. In addition, large amounts of infrastructure will be needed. Landing pads at thousands of intervals, maintenance stations, and mapped flying routes will all have to be designed and built. It would be easy to conclude from this that flying cars are currently beyond the

MARTHA DOYLE

If you travelled to the UK coastline last summer, you may have been shocked to find an unprecedented number of jellyfish inhabiting the shallow waters, raising the simple question of ‘why?’. Jellyfish belong to the plankton family, a marine group at the very beginning of oceanic food chains which have been drifting through the sea using currents for 500 million years. Despite being larger than most forms of plankton they have no brain or blood but can deliver a painful sting through microscopic barbs on their tentacles. Usually, the sting will only have localized effects including discomfort and swelling but, in some cases, a whole-body reaction may occur and the stings can be fatal. This is the case for Box Jellyfish, which are now spreading into waters previously too cold for it to survive, posing a threat to popular tourist beaches worldwide.

STEM

more significant than overfishing, including solar activity, lunar nodal cycles, and major changes in marine food webs. Jellyfish can potentially pose as early warning indicators for global oscillations including El Nino and understanding the catalysts in jellyfish population change can help to minimize destruction caused by blooms in the future. The increased number of jellyfish in our oceans is another reminder of the impacts of ocean acidification caused by anthropogenic activities. Moreover, jellyfish are not the only non-native species heading to the UK because of warmer seas - the National Geographic predict Hammerhead, Sand Tiger and Blacktip sharks will all be inhabiting UK waters within the next 30 years. Climate change is changing the distribution of several marine species, having catastrophic effects on general oceanic biodiversity and although jellyfish are proving resilient to such changes, it is important to consider that other vital species may not be so durable.

Oceanic oxygen levels have diminished by

2 %

in the last 50 years.

the company over £1 million. Tourism is another industry suffering due to jellyfish with many beaches in Spain treating over 400 stings in a day, putting tourists off visiting the coast which will have negative economic impacts in such areas, particularly those heavily reliant on the industry. However, there are some benefits. Jellyfish act as excellent environmental indicators with the occurrence of jellyfish blooms being a signifier of changes in oceanic conditions including rising temperatures and pollution. Many scientists are now studying such incidents to gain insights into marine environments and begin to better understand the effects of climate change on the ocean. Jellyfish are essential to marine ecosystems with complex roles as both predator and prey, allowing them to help maintain balance within food webs. The increased populations of jellyfish around the UK have also had a knock-on effect on other species, causing a surge in leatherback sea turtle sightings around the coastline. The fluctuations in jellyfish populations should trigger a search for the drivers of such vast changes on both a regional and global scale, as the larger variations in population could indicate something

global phenomenon; fishing has hugely reduced the jellyfish’s natural predators including tuna and swordfish, allowing populations to boom in heavily fished areas. Research has also shown that warming temperatures enhance the production, feeding and growth rates of jellyfish, once again giving the creatures an advantage against more vulnerable competitors in marine food webs. Not only is this bad news to avid beachgoers, but destruction has been evident in more areas than one might expect. In 2011, the Torness nuclear power plant in Scotland had to be shut down as jellyfish started blocking the cooling filters, posing a potential threat to safety at the plant as well as reducing productivity. Two years later, this issue occurred again in Sweden’s Oskarshamn nuclear power plant, containing the world’s largest boiling water reactor; filters prevented the jellyfish from entering the reactor, but the plant had to be shut down. Many other human activities are being disrupted by the increased abundance of jellyfish from salmon farming to sea-bed diamond mining. 2007 saw a bloom of jellyfish clearing 100,000 salmon in Northern Ireland’s only salmon farm, costing

The increasing abundance of jellyfish, noticeable on the UK coastline, is a prominent indicator of climate change and the way that it is affecting our oceans. Due to absorbing 22 million tonnes of carbon dioxide daily, the pH of the ocean is being reduced, acidifying the sea due to the mixing of carbon dioxide with water molecules, forming carbonic acid. As demonstrated by coral bleaching, most forms of life are extremely sensitive to pH levels, but jellyfish do not seem to be suffering under these drastically changing conditions. In fact, research has shown that as the pH drops, the population of jellyfish rises. This is not due to acidic waters being preferable for jellyfish but instead due to a slight resilience to lower pHs that other species cannot survive in. As the ocean becomes more acidic, the jellyfish’s competitors are killed off and their prey becomes less healthy and therefore more vulnerable, making consumption far easier. Oceanic oxygen levels have also diminished by 2% in the last 50 years. Once again, only jellyfish appear to have a resilience to these changes, allowing them to benefit from the reduction in predation and weaker prey. Overfishing is another big factor contributing to this

CULTURE & SOCIETY

EMPLOYMENT RATE

Graduate

High-skilled non-graduates

87.3 %

66.3 %

Are Apprenticeships a Viable Alternative to University? DAISY BROOKER

Graduate High-skilled non-graduates £38,500 £27,000 MEDIAN SALARY

A record 650,000 students started an undergraduate university course last year. At the same time, over 40,000 young people began an apprenticeship, and this number is on the rise, representing a genuine alternative to university. This is primarily driven by the increasing costs of a university degree for young people, and by employers recognising that many graduates are coming to them without the appropriate skills required. By offering apprenticeships, companies can have more of an input in the education and training of their employees. This can lead to a much more productive workforce. A common myth is that apprenticeships are often unpaid – this is untrue. Companies are obligated to pay at least minimum wage, and in addition, they fund the apprentice to gain qualifications as opposed to students who must take out loans to fund their degrees.

This is not to say that pursuing a university degree is futile. Statistics show that the graduate employment rate (87.3%) is higher than that of high-skilled non-graduates (66.3%) and that their median salary is higher also. (£38,500 vs £27,000). There are also the unquantifiable benefits of university. The experience, life skills and social aspects are important, and many lifelong friendships and relationships can emerge from your university days. Although most young people will carry on their education at university, the growing emergence of apprenticeships as another option means that those who do not wish to go to university still have a viable career path where they can gain experience and further educational qualifications, whilst avoiding the debt-based system.

Charity, the BBC estimates that the cost of a three-year degree course in tuition and accommodation for students is £49,887 in England, £45,494 in Wales, £32,091 in Northern Ireland and £27,775 in Scotland to study in their own country. For many careers, a degree is a necessity. For many popular careers like medicine or law, applicants will need to secure at least an undergraduate degree. However, the massive increase in the number of young people attending university that began in the Blair years has seen millions of students enrol in courses that do not necessarily lead onto a defined career path.

For many, the idea of going to university has always seemed like the natural next step after Sixth Form, a rite of passage that we inevitably follow. But in the post-COVID world where things have changed so rapidly and many of the old certainties have been turned on their heads, some are wondering if university significant cost. Currently tuition fees in England are £9,250 per year, whilst Scottish students benefit from free tuition, meaning where you live will play a big part in your decision. Using data from the NUS and the Unipol Housing is really the right path after all. Firstly, there is the matter of the

CULTURE & SOCIETY

Carceral Feminism and its Weaknesses AMELIA PRESCOT

having a pre-existing relationship with the victim, super predators were characterised as men exhibiting extreme masculinity and symbols of the patriarchy. Of course, these fairy tale tropes won’t always have their happy ever after; this system ignores anyone who is more morally grey rather than the binary of ‘good’ and ‘evil’. Furthermore, when these ‘evil’ men were eventually sent to prison for their crimes, the time they spent incarcerated was seen as a time in which the man could ‘repent for his sins’ and serve his time to then be allowed to have his moral ‘slate wiped clean’. However, as the logic of the movement gives women individual responsibility, those who did not conform with carceral feminism were seen to be allowing themselves to be abused and therefore were not given sympathy.

Carceral feminism is defined as feminism which advocates for enhancing and increasing prison sentences that deal with feminist and gender issues. It emerged during the second wave of feminism in the 1970s, originating from the ‘battered women’s movement’. This movement was deeply anti-authoritarian and sought to gain equality through a more holistic approach in helping women recover from abuse. However, by the mid 1980s, feminist rhetoric had shifted to one which saw legal action as the best way to serve justice, and carceral feminism was born. Tied up in the shift of the movement’s focus was an increase in the disregard for external political and economic factors, which influenced the differing levels of abuse faced across society. Through this, the movement narrowed to focus on women who were socio- economically privileged. This created a ‘perfect victim’- the white middle-class woman.

Although the movement was working within a racist society, so utilising stereotypes of white women as ‘pure’ and ‘innocent’ aided their progress, this methodology damaged the progress of every woman who was excluded from that category. Moreover, given Black, Asian, and Minority Ethnic (BAME) groups often suffered, and continue to suffer, worse socio-economic situations, the lack of breadth in their approach meant they were no longer working towards true equality. This has certainly contributed to the higher rates of domestic violence that BAME groups face, with 5.6% of victims being white compared to 23.8% being an ethnic minority. Paired with the rise of the ‘everywoman’ came the emergence of the ‘super predator’. In contrast to modern paradigms of rape perpetrators often

CULTURE & SOCIETY

Domestic Terrorism in the United States: A History RACHEL HOPKINSON

In 2001, the United States of America was victim to the largest terrorist attack in recorded history, with the tragedy of 9/11 having long-lasting, profound impacts both at home and across the world. However, the threat of terrorism in the US does not solely stem from foreign militant forces such as Al-Qaeda or Isis; in fact, some of the largest terrorist threats the US have faced have been born on US soil. Domestic terrorism is a growing threat in our current affairs, as reflected by “the years 2020 and 2021 [having] the highest numbers of domestic terrorist attacks and plots” in the data of the Centre for Strategic International Studies. This new spike in the domestic threat has triggered the first ever “National Strategy for Countering Domestic Terrorism” being published by President Biden. It is apparent that this presents a significant issue for the United States, so what is the history of this threat that seems to have

permeated American society and how has it developed into the widescale issue it is today? The latter half of nineteenth century America saw nine significant domestic terrorist attacks including six massacres. Despite the staggering number of attacks, the political ideologies that motivated each event vastly fluctuated with every act of violence. The San Francisco Coal Miners Massacre in 1849 was driven by a white vigilante group named “the Hounds” whereas the following attack, the Pottawatomi Creek massacre of 1856, was led by Abolitionist Jonh Brown against pro-slavery settlers. Two such differing motivations in succession of each other suggests the instability of American society at this time, widely driven by the 13th amendment to the US constitution that abolished slavery, creating extremists on ends of the political spectrum.

Overall, the ideology implies justice is served to victims of sexual harassment or abuse through the perpetrators being served criminal charges. Ultimately, it was presented as the greatest liberation tool that feminists could use to work towards gender equality. However, in reality it lacks nuance as it draws a direct path from crime to punishment as serving justice to the victim. Yet, the complexities in which justice can be served are mostly ignored by this theory. Therefore, although carceral feminism led to key legal changes which helped to create equality, the damaging secondary impacts of this school of thought should not be ignored if feminism today still aims to achieve equality for all men and women.

Through the generalisations of both men and woman, legal action was seen as the best solution to domestic violence. Although this school of thought has obvious flaws, the movement certainly accelerated the introduction of tighter laws around equality. In the UK, the Sex Discrimination Act in 1975 made it “unlawful to treat a woman ‘less favourably’ than a man ‘on the ground of her sex.’” Furthermore, in 1974, the Equal Credit Opportunity Act allowed women to open their own bank accounts. These crucial legal advances almost certainly wouldn’t have been passed as soon or as successfully as they were without the influence of the carceral feminism movement.

CULTURE & SOCIETY

formations of terrorist organisations, the threat of domestic terrorism became increasingly difficult to control, monitor or prevent. This threat came into reality in the 2010s, when the US suffered 11 terrorist attacks between the years of 2012 to 2019. Supporting motivations varied from neo- Nazi beliefs, neo-fascist beliefs, radical Islamic beliefs, white supremacists, radical jihadists, anti-LGBTQ, anti-republican political views, antisemitism, and anti- immigration beliefs. In comparison to the nineteenth century when domestic terrorism rose for the first time in the US, widely in reaction to racial differences, the network of extremists has expanded both in size and in aim. The type of domestic extremism that we see in today’s world has transformed since its conception into the vicious and complex threat we face now.

However, a plethora of new political ideologies have fuelled many of the recent domestic attacks on US soil. The notorious Unabomber attacks that continued for nearly two decades advocated an anti-technology ideology – heavily unaligned with any form of domestic terrorism seen in US history. Alternative political motivations began to appear across the board such as the Jewish Defence League attacks from 1980 to 1985, or the Centennial Olympic Park bombing that campaigned against “ideals of global socialism” and “abortion on demand”. In fact, one of the largest domestic terrorist attacks in US history, the Oklahoma City bombing in 1995, was driven by neo-fascist beliefs. The end of the twentieth century gave rise to an increase in formations of extremist groups, all with wildly varying beliefs and aims. With such increasingly sporadic

However, race was far from the sole cause of domestic terrorism; the rest of the nineteenth century saw terrorist motivation that spanned from Mormonism (the Utah Territorial Militia), anti-abolitionists, pro- abolitionists, the KKK and anarchists. Domestic terrorist activity was rife in the USA as they entered the twentieth century. However, this new century saw a momentary shift emerging from a focus on racial issues to anarchist beliefs. These extremists committed deadly bombings at the Milwaukee police department in 1917 and Wall Street in 1920, thought to be perpetrated by followers of Luigi Gilleani, an insurrectionary anarchist. However, violence against the African American community stayed prevalent

in this century. The “United Klan of America” committed the 16th Street Baptists Church bombing at the height of the civil rights movement in 1963, killing four girls between the ages of 11 to 14. Such inhumane acts of violence against the African American community reflects the prevalence of racial discrimination in American society in the 1960s, over 130 years after the abolition of slavery. However, even more staggering was the Charleston church shooting in 2015, which claimed 9 lives. Committed by white supremacist, Dylann Roof, it is clear that the US has not tackled their deep-rooted racial injustices even after such an extensive civil rights movement and fight for equality.

PHILOSOPHY & PSYCHOLOGY

“The natural response would be that God obviously has freedom, for he is, as remarked by countless theologians, the greatest possible being, and necessary too.”

Is the Concept of Freedom Applicable to God? DAN RIDDLE

DAN RIDDLE

as realities which are applicable to God for we have no experience to match that of God’s, then one must consider whether God has freedom or not. The natural response would be that God obviously has freedom, for he is, as remarked by countless theologians, the greatest possible being, and necessary too. A being that is free is undoubtedly greater than one who lives in shackles, so it is reasonable to assume that God acts freely. The idea of God possessing free will is supported by his omnibenevolence. God is all love and loves all, so his actions are just and moral. For an action to be moral, it must be freely done. What this means is that for God to be moral and loving, he must have free will. What is more, when describing God’s actions, they must be viewed from a libertarian view, as God cannot be caused to do anything and therefore is the sole culprit for all his deeds.

If God exists beyond the confines of liberty or limitation, then his actions must be explained by something else. They cannot be spontaneous, otherwise that would imply free will. They cannot be caused, otherwise that would imply a lack of free will. This in turn would also suggest a lack in omnipotence. It appears that this endless search for a definition that suits God’s actions (and satisfies his transcendence) will be futile, as there will always be a non-metaphysical or anthropomorphic quality which would reduce the aspect of God to a mortal level. In defining God’s actions, we must use analogy based on our own understandings of the world around us, no matter how incomprehensibly meagre they seem in the face of God. Therefore, if one accepts that we can apply the concept of freedom (even if it is analogous), or in fact the lack of freedom

The concept of freedom, otherwise known as free will, has been the subject of much philosophical discourse as to whether humans are truly free in their actions and lives. While the answer to this question remains uncertain, it begets the question of whether God has free will, or if we can even apply the concept to a being beyond our confinements. While it would be easy to say that due to the grandeur and the transcendence of the Almighty that he transcends the subjects of freedom or enslavement, existing above them as a higher life form,

this is a rather dissatisfactory answer. In plastering over the typical response that “God is beyond all things”, we’re left with a much more strenuous question: If God doesn’t have free will, what does he have? The simplest answer to this question is that we don’t know, and we probably never will, as God is a metaphysical lifeform who is ultimately unknowable, leaving us once again with an incredibly unsatisfying response. The question remains unanswered, but while there is strength in the simplicity in its response, it fails to answer the question.

PHILOSOPHY & PSYCHOLOGY

Subconscious Explanations of Behaviour LEAH CLARKE How Childhood Trauma Impacts Adulthood

“The only restriction on God’s power is God’s own nature which prevents God from doing evil, dying, etc” PETER VARDY

Upon closer inspection however, this is not the case. We have already clarified that God is an omnibenevolent being, one who is perfectly loving of everyone. This definition admits that God cannot do harm. The philosopher and author Peter Vardy wrote that “The only restriction on God’s power is God’s own nature which prevents God from doing evil, dying, etc”. While this appears simply as a criticism of God’s omnipotence, it is equally restrictive of God’s free will. Free will requires a choice, as humans have the choice to do good or evil. The choice to do good makes our actions moral. God’s characteristics prevent him from doing evil, so he cannot choose between good and evil, he can only choose good. This limitation restricts the supposed freedom of God. His freedom cannot be circumstantial, as he has not the means to do harm according to the

traditional Christian definitions, nor can his freedom be metaphysical, as he has not the freedom to choose between good and evil and can only choose good. This would mean not only that God doesn’t have free will, but that his actions could not be moral, as he is under obligation from his defining trait as omnibenevolent. This is an incredibly bold statement, to say that God is an arguably immoral being who must be responsive to his own intensely demanding characteristics. It is logically impossible for God to be omnibenevolent and possess free will simultaneously. Free will requires a choice that omnibenevolence cannot provide and without the freedom to choose, omnibenevolence cannot exist. The complexity of God’s very existence provides such an extent of inner conflict and debate that is seemingly endless.

Over the years, psychologists have gained a deepened insight into the impacts of childhood trauma on adulthood. It is believed to be one of the predominant causes of various psychological disorders that can be developed in later life. For example, there are heavy links between childhood trauma, and later diagnoses of anxiety and depression. The classification of childhood trauma is very dependent on the individual and the circumstances. The preliminary causes for trauma tend to be physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, however, trauma can be caused by a variety of other circumstances i.e., bereavement, neglect, and domestic struggles like divorce. Furthermore, there are various factors which account for the reactions of children to trauma: their developmental level; ethnicity or cultural factors;

previous exposure to trauma; available resources; preexisting child and family problems. A very topical influence in our current society is the influence of trauma on adult intimate relationships. Erozka (2016) interviewed 911 Turkish students about their childhood traumas and later experiences in relationships. It was found that there was a strong link between fearful, preoccupied and dismissive attachment styles, and experiences of abuse during childhood. Additionally, there was a strong negative correlation between stable attachment styles and experiences of abuse during childhood. This can be explained through the subconscious triggers picked up as a child, and the ability for them to cause severe panic even in situations of minimal stress.

PHILOSOPHY & PSYCHOLOGY

The Hidden Epidemic of Perfectionism in Sport CHARLOTTE DARGUE

Despite the common belief that perfectionism is a prerequisite for success, research suggests otherwise: the most successful individuals tend to exhibit fewer perfectionistic tendencies. Perfectionism today has evolved into a ‘hidden epidemic’, particularly prevalent in places with a highly individualistic culture. The self-help industry, life coaches, personal trainers, and study drugs all capitalise on the mainstreaming of perfectionism, heightening its impacts on athletes at all levels.

Perfectionism is typically defined as a trait in an individual who holds rigidly to their standards, even in situations that do not call for perfection. In a healthier form, it is not a threatening trait to have and it can serve as a motivator, driving individuals to overcome challenges and attain success. However, when it begins to spiral into an extreme and unhealthy obsession, it leads to avoiding challenges, adopting an all-or-nothing mindset, and making toxic comparisons. This becomes especially impactful in the world of sports, where unpredictability reigns, making failure nearly inevitable.

Further knowledge of generational trauma supports the theory of its influence on mannerisms expressed as an adult. Generational trauma references unresolved trauma that is genetically inherited from parents or grandparents. For instance, in society, there is a recurring generational cycle of domestic violence. Between 30% and 40% of people who were abused as children go on to become abusers themselves. This cycle can be difficult to break as the child cannot comprehend non-violent domestic behaviours and therefore will struggle to treat their family in such a way in later life. Moreover, abuse can create an emotional disconnect within the child, often linked to disassociation

which can lead to difficulties expressing affection. These cycles are created intergenerationally as the abusive behaviours are rooted in their upbringing and the behaviour that their parents express to them. In conclusion, mannerisms displayed throughout adulthood can be heavily explained through the triggers and emotional defects created by childhood trauma. The understanding of the subconscious influence of childhood trauma has helped many professionals to guide people and support the reduction of violent characteristics, as people can begin to break down and overcome the generational cycles impacting their everyday behaviours.

PHILOSOPHY & PSYCHOLOGY

It’s not a surprise that many athletes deal with extreme perfectionism. They are bombarded with statistics and numbers whilst being judged by coaches and others on speed, strength, weight etc. Putting it simply, athletes are investing all their effort into training to improve these numbers. With all this effort, athletes may tend to set themselves unrealistic goals and become highly outcome- orientated, so when these objectives are most likely not achieved, separating themselves from their mistakes and failures is incredibly difficult. Victoria Pendleton, when interviewed in 2008 after winning six cycling world championship titles and Olympic gold,

The influence of social media on athletes perpetuates unrealistic ideals, emphasizing a narrow view of what an athlete’s life should entail. High-profile athletes frequently showcase only their sporting achievements, inadvertently suggesting that perfection is synonymous with complete immersion in their sport. Today, more than ever, distinguishing between an athlete’s online persona and their authentic self has become challenging. This blurred line can fuel an athlete’s obsession with their sport as they strive to match the misrepresented image portrayed online, potentially amplifying an unhealthy level of dedication. One of the most detrimental aspects of perfectionism is the overwhelming guilt and shame experienced upon failure, often leading individuals to withhold effort to avoid facing these emotions. This is a severe problem in sport. If athletes decide to not put any effort in to avoid genuinely failing, what does this mean for the future of sport? This behaviour not only sabotages current performance but also feeds into anxiety about future failures, potentially leading athletes to avoid certain training or competitions, perpetuating a cycle of underperformance and heightened anxiety.

given situation. Consequently, satisfaction with performance dwindles due to an overly critical self-evaluation process. The impacts of perfectionism are ongoing as athletes may have recurring thoughts about the need to be flawless and meet up to their perfectionist ideals, which can never match their actual performance. This perfectionistic mindset is closely tied to an athlete’s burnout, especially coupled with unrealistic goals and excessive self-expectations. Its prevalence prompts reflection on how this once motivational trait has escalated into a widespread issue impacting athlete well- being and performance.

expressed, “I just want to prove that I’m really good at something, And I haven’t quite done that yet - at least not to myself”. While this sentiment may not immediately sound extreme, it underscores the toxic normalisation of perfectionism under the guise of ‘striving for excellence.’ The impact of perfectionism permeates every stage of an athlete’s performance journey. Anxiety and dejection before a competition are increased which can harm not only the individual but the entire team’s preparation. During athletic performances, perfectionistic concerns are associated with higher appraisals of threat, making athletes believe they lack the necessary resources to cope with the

“I just want to prove that I’m really good at something, And I haven’t quite done that yet - at least not to myself”

VICTORIA PENDLETON

“Imprisonment within a positive environment should still be viewed as imprisonment.” HANNAH NUNAN

What Price Would You Pay For Happiness?

good. According to this principle, the people of Omelas are right to ignore the suffering of the child in order to protect the peace of their city. The combined happiness of the entire population, if it can be quantified, would arguably outweigh that of the child if it were to be released and cared for. The narrator asserts that ‘one thing [they] know there is none of in Omelas is guilt.’ The citizens, in trying to deal with the knowledge of this atrocity, create ways to justify the ‘terrible justice of reality’: they argue that ‘it has been afraid too long to ever be free of fear’. In possessing this knowledge, it could be argued that their happiness becomes more precious. It is ‘no vapid, irresponsible happiness’: in knowing what must occur for this emotion to be perpetuated, there is a contrast created between pleasure and the potential for pain. Without this, the contentment of Omelas loses all meaning.

For an unknown reason, the prolongment of peace and contentment in Omelas depends wholly on the suffering of this individual. It is clearly established that all citizens of Omelas are aware of this child, the suffering it experiences, and above all, that it is necessary to sustain their own happiness. Some ‘come to see it, others are content merely to know it is there.’ This scenario introduces the philosophical theory of utilitarianism, the idea that the morally right action is the action that produces the most good, posing the question of whether an individual’s suffering can be justified by a greater overall happiness. Utilitarianism has been a prominent family of philosophical theories throughout ethical history. Predominantly developed by Jeremy Bentham in the 18th century, this theory presents decision-making as a matter of producing the greatest overall

HANNAH NUNAN Ursula K. Le Guin poses this question in her short story, ‘The Ones Who Walk Away From Omelas’.

In this fictional city, the population experiences perfect contentment, epitomised in the celebration of the Festival of Summer. The ‘joyous’ people of Omelas parade around the streets, revelling in the festivities, carefree and satisfied. However, there is a sense of unreality established; the narrator frequently interjects, questioning whether the reader considers this society to be

credible and whether they ‘accept the festival, the city, the joy’. After this last interruption, the narrator reveals the conditions under which the happiness of Omelas can be sustained. In order for this idyllic society to exist, there is a room in which a singular child is kept. This child is starved, beaten, neglected, and imprisoned, with its only human contact characterised by violence and debasement.

LANGUAGE & LITERATURE

End Times CAELAN MARSHALL

that had shone on us the day I realised so many things.

You sat next to me.

Before us there were windows The sun Filled my vision yellow, yellow The TVs showed The same adverts that had played when we had taken this same trip days ago Before the world had changed.

However, even if it can be argued that the happiness of the collective is worth more than that of the few, the nature of the happiness itself should be questioned. Knowing their pleasure is the result of misery creates an obligation to make the child’s suffering worthwhile, forcing the population to value this happiness highly, and sustain it even if it is not desired. Continuing to make this child suffer for the ‘greater good’ results in the dependency on an entirely disputable principle for the sake of maintaining an artificial peace that, in reality, is wholly fragile. In this way, the people arguably live fabricated lives, with the narrator stating that ‘they know that they, like the child, are not free.’ Imprisonment within a positive environment should still be viewed as imprisonment. As such, the sense behind rationalising the child’s suffering begins to diminish. The happiness of Omelas is arguably built on an inability to give up this utopian society as opposed to an active, meaningful choice made in mind of the collective, creating a cycle of moral compromise that moves continually further from justification.

The narrator does present an alternative option to this dilemma. A few citizens are not able to reconcile themselves with what acts as the foundation of their city. As such, some ‘leave Omelas, [walking] ahead into the darkness, and do not come back.’ In departing what is presented as the idyllic society, these few portray both the cost of knowledge and the value in choice. In abandoning the city’s iteration of happiness, they have the opportunity to find true contentment, one that does not come at any price to another. However, the narrator also reveals that there may, in fact, be nowhere for these people to go, as it is likely that the place they are aiming for ‘does not exist.’ Despite this, they ‘seem to know where they are going’, suggesting their departure is, above all, a matter of principle. Le Guin’s story, particularly the ambiguity of the ending, forces the reader to consider their own moral integrity and ultimately, what they would be willing to sacrifice to preserve it.

the end of the end of so many things

you cried silently your ego failing to uphold your facade I turned and faced the sun looked it in the eyes and stepped forwards. it’s a shame that real beauty can be found in pain it’s a shame that that day on that boat despite everything I realised you really are just a man. The end times announced themselves and, head held high, I faced the sun.

Basked in the yellow sun You started to cry.

‘I failed you.’

I didn’t say anything because

You had.

Something was deeply deeply wrong In my stomach In my life

I remember the sun

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