1452–1519 Leonardo da Vinci Epitomizes Italian Renaissance
Figure 6 (left). In this monumental tribute to Genghis Kahn in Ulan Bator the Mongol warrior king sits astride a horse atop a massive podium replicating a colonnaded classical building and symbolizing his conquest of the Greco-Roman world. Image courtesy of Brucke-Osteruropa. Figure 7 (bottom). This carved calendar stone makes the power, complexity and spirit of the Aztec imagination evident at a glance. Image courtesy of William Henry Jackson. Figure 8 (below). Part scientific notation and part artwork, this page from Leonardo’s diary depicts his design for a flying machine and embodies his mastery of many creative disciplines. Image courtesy of Library of Congress.
Enriched by reviving commerce with the Middle East, Florence and Venice began to generate social groups in the late 1400s with surprising and, by medieval standards, almost heretical respect for human talent. This new confidence, reinforced by exposure to newly discovered Greek manuscripts, revealed itself in many forms but especially in art and architecture, where it was widely interpreted as a rebirth of classical culture. The ideas and style of this Italian “Renaissance” (a 19th century term) spread to neighboring regions of Europe during the next 200 years. It produced many notable thinkers and artists, among them the political theorist Niccolo Machiavelli (1469–1527), sculptor and architect Michelangelo (1475–1564), and the humanist Erasmus (1466–1536). However, no individual reflected the achievement of the Renaissance to a greater extent than Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), arguably the most diversely talented individual in human history. Raised and trained in Florence and renowned as the painter of the Mona Lisa, he was also a musician, mathematician and inventor who made important discoveries in anatomy, engineering, and optics. SEE FIGURE 8 1453 Constantinople Falls to the Turks The capture of Constantinople by Sultan Mehmed II and the Ottoman Turks in 1453 marked the end of what remained of the Roman empire and signified the end of the Middle Ages as well. Loss of the city was a serious blow to Christendom, freeing the Ottomans to advance into Europe, which they did in ensuing centuries, taking Budapest in 1541 and reaching the gates of Vienna in 1683. In the eleven centuries since its founding by the Emperor Constantine, the eastern imperial capital had been captured only once, during the Fourth Crusade in 1204. The city was re-captured by Byzantine forces in 1261 but never regained its earlier strength. By 1453 its holdings consisted of a few square miles around the city and the Peloponnesus in Greece. Yet it remained an important symbol of Christian power. The Emperor Constantine XI appealed to Pope Nicholas V for help against the Muslims and even promised in return to end the Orthodox schism with the Western Church. The Pope called for a crusade on behalf of the city, but no western leader responded. SEE FIGURE 9
1162–1227 Genghis Khan & Mongols Overrun Asia By the 13th century it was the Seljuk Turks’ turn to be overwhelmed, this time by a wave of horse-riding invaders, the Mongol armies of Genghis Khan. Spreading out from the Asian heartland, Mongols penetrated as far as Baghdad in 1258 and Palestine in 1260, but their stay in the Middle East was brief. It was noteworthy primarily because it enabled local leaders to come to power in Syria and Egypt and thus kept the Ottoman Anatolian Turks out of these areas even after the Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453. In 1517 the Ottomans finally united the region under one ruler for the first time since the Abbasid caliphate of the 10th century. They kept control for 400 years. Farther north and east the Mongols remained a dominating force much longer than in the Middle East. It was not until 1480 that the principality of Moscow finally freed itself of their control. The Mongols ruled China from the 1200s until 1368. SEE FIGURE 6
1200–1500 Aztec Empire in Mexico
The Aztec tribe was a late arrival in Mexico, migrating from the north in the 12th century. However, it built on the religious and intellectual foundations of nearby cultures centered in Teotihuacan before 700 and Tula after 800. The Aztecs made enemies of neighboring tribes and quickly lost their independence, regaining it only about 1325, when they escaped into the swamps where Mexico City stands today. At this point they became more militaristic and expansionist, and with new allies they subdued much of the coastal region east and south of the city in the century subsequent to 1420. The Aztecs were an industrious people, their culture featuring jewelry, pottery, feather-work, and embroidery. Their wealth was greatly increased by trade and by heavy tribute imposed on conquered peoples. Religion was a central element of Aztec life and involved sacrificial ceremonies considered necessary to “re-clothe” the sun each day. Aztec sculpture and architecture were inspired by religion and reflected the grimness of sacrificial ceremonies. SEE FIGURE 7
11
Made with FlippingBook Digital Proposal Creator