endorsed by Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin at Yalta in February 1945. All countries would belong to a General Assembly, but a Security Council made up of Britain, France, China, the Soviet Union, the United States (each with a veto), and six elected members would wield decisive power. Delegates from 50 nations met in San Francisco from April to June 1945 to draft and approve the United Nations charter. It was ratified by the U.S. Senate in July by a vote of 89 to 2, and the organization came into existence in New York City in the autumn of 1945.
NOVEMBER 1943 Of 2.1 Million Workers in Aircraft Industry, 36% are Women World War II not only brought new people and new groups to California; it altered social relationships among men and women. The war was an important turning point for California women, especially those who were Black. As men entered the armed forces, women’s opportunities for employment were greatly expanded, especially in the aircraft and shipbuilding industries. The song “Rosie the Riveter” became a well-known symbol of female participation in the work force, which fell off sharply after 1945 but never declined to prewar levels. SEE FIGURE 41
MAY 8, 1945 War Ends in Europe
The turning point of the war in Europe occurred during the winter of 1942 –1943, when the Soviets blunted Hitler’s advance at Stalingrad and the western Allies launched major offensives in North Africa. In 1943, the United States and Britain invaded Italy, reaching Rome in June 1944, the same month that Allied forces crossed the English Channel and landed in Normandy. By September the Allies had driven the Germans out of most of France and Belgium while the Russians were advancing into Poland. The spring of 1945 saw German cities pulverized from the skies as Americans and British crossed the Rhine and Stalin’s forces reached the Oder River. On April 30, Hitler committed suicide in his Berlin bunker. Germany surrendered unconditionally the following week. AUGUST 6 & 9, 1945 U.S. Drops Atomic Bombs on Japan; War Ends in Asia Prompted by the discovery in Germany in 1938 that a chain reaction of nuclear fission would release tremendous amounts of energy, American scientists raced to harness nuclear reactions for military purposes before the enemy could. This top-secret research — code-named the Manhattan Project — cost $2 billion, employed 120,000 people, and required the establishment of 37 installations in 19 states. The first successful atomic test occurred in Alamogordo, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945. Shortly afterward President Harry Truman made the decision to employ the device against Japan in the hope it would make an American invasion of the home islands unnecessary. Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the two cities where bombs were dropped, suffered more than 160,000 immediate dead. Tens of thousands died slowly from radiation sickness. Japan surrendered quickly, but modern war would never be the same. SEE FIGURE 42
JUNE 1944 GI Bill of Rights Enacted
Figure 41. Thousands of women became skilled technicians after training at factory schools established by California’s airplane manufacturers. Image courtesy of Library of Congress.
Under the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act (the GI Bill), 16 million veterans of World War II were eligible to claim unemployment compensation while they searched for jobs. Veterans were also eligible for low-interest loans to purchase homes, small businesses, and farms as well as grants for job training and education. As a result of the GI Bill, unprecedented numbers of young people flooded American colleges and universities after the war. APRIL–JUNE 1945 United Nations Charter Drafted in San Francisco As World War II approached its climax, the Allies created a new international organization to replace the defunct League of Nations and to assist in achieving world peace and security. The concept had been discussed at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in the fall of 1944 and
Figure 42. The destruction of Nagasaki, Japan via a B-29 atomic bomb raid ended World War II. Image courtesy of Library of Congress.
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