the 1960s and 1970s. Beginning in the late 1980s—faced with increasing international scrutiny and the resilience of activists—advocacy groups started dismantling the legal system of apartheid. After his release from prison, Mandela ran for office and became the first post-apartheid president. He committed to building a more equitable South African government for all. SEE FIGURE 77
1995 Irvine Spectrum Center Opens
The Irvine Company, one of the largest property owners in California, began developing a new retail and entertainment complex in 1985. The company completed two office towers at the central Irvine site four years later. A movie theater, food court, and entertainment center opened in 1995, completing the first phase of development. The Irvine Spectrum Center expanded during two subsequent phases, including the addition of a carousel and an iconic Ferris wheel. As shoppers’ desires changed over time, many different stores have opened and closed their doors. Two of the tallest buildings in Orange County, 200 and 400 Spectrum, are also located in the Spectrum Center area. Restaurants and a children’s play area draw families to the shopping center. The Irvine Spectrum Center is a destination for both locals and visitors to the area. SEE FIGURE 78 1997 First Social Media Platform Launches The increasing accessibility of personal computers and expanding access to the internet gave rise to a new type of interactive experience: social media. Six Degrees became one of the first social media platforms when it debuted in 1997. Its name alluded to the theory that everyone in the world is connected, with no more than six degrees of separation from one another. Six Degrees debuted many of the features that would become standard on social media: the use of email addresses to create individual accounts, the ability to create personal profiles, and features that allowed users to find and add friends to their network. Over the next several decades, sites like MySpace, Facebook, short- form video platforms, and blogging sites helped to connect communities across the globe and reshaped communication. Eventually, social media became a platform for advertising, activism, education, and entertainment. It is now used by businesses, organizations, and government agencies for all types of news and communications.
Figure 77. President Nelson Mandela with Congressional Black Caucus members at an event in Washington, D.C., 1994. Image courtesy of Library of Congress.
JANUARY 1994 Northridge Earthquake A 6.7 magnitude earthquake rattled Los Angeles early on the morning of January 17, 1994. Because its epicenter was in a dense urban area, the earthquake caused significant property damage. Freeways collapsed. Apartment buildings and homes crumbled during the earthquake and during the thousands of aftershocks that followed. California history includes many deadly and damaging quakes, including the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, the 1933 Long Beach earthquake, and the 1989 Lom Prieta earthquake. The 1994 Northridge earthquake injured some 9,000 people and killed more than fifty. California has developed stringent building codes and warning systems to try to prevent future disasters related to earthquakes. However, some scientists warn that the San Andreas Fault, running along the California coast and through the southern part of the state, will eventually cause a major catastrophic earthquake. SEE FIGURE 76 ON PREVIOUS PAGE APRIL 1994 End of Apartheid in South Africa; Election of Nelson Mandela Voters in South Africa elected Nelson Mandela as their president in 1994. It was the first multiracial election after the country endured decades of apartheid, a system of laws and policies that racially segregated South Africa. In 1948, the British colonial government created a system of extreme legal discrimination. White citizens had access to the best social, political, and economic opportunities. Non-White citizens, including Black and multiracial individuals, faced intense economic and social inequality. The government responded to any protests with violence and threats of incarceration. Nelson Mandela was arrested for his efforts to dismantle apartheid. He was sent to prison in 1962 and remained there for twenty-seven years. Anti-apartheid activists staged sit-ins, participated in boycotts, and withstood state-sponsored violence throughout
Figure 78. Irvine Spectrum Center Ferris wheel in 2017. Image courtesy of Wayne Hsieh, Flickr.
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