The TOEFL iBT Official Prep Book (Volume I)

Reading Skill Contents 1. Making Predictions • Objective: Students will be able to anticipate content for effective comprehension • Skills Focus: Common prediction-based question types 2. Skimming and Scanning • Objectives: Students will be able to identify techniques for grasping main ideas • Skills Focus: Quickly locating specific information 3. Locating Information and Question Types • Objectives: Students will be able to recognize patterns in TOEFL question types • Skills Focus: Targeted information retrieval skills 4. Identifying Facts and Opinions • Objectives: Students will be able to identify tools for distinguishing facts from opinions • Skills Focus: Recognizing Opinion-Based Language 5. Paraphrasing Techniques • Objective: Students will be able to identify structure for clear understanding • Skills Focus: Tips for accurate restatement 6. Recognizing Cause and Effect • Objective: Students will be able to link causes to their effects • Skills Focus: Identifying cause-effect patterns 7. Compare and Contrast • Objective: Students will be able to identify comparison indicators and contrast signals • Skills Focus: Differentiating between related concepts Reading Skill Contents 1. Making Predictions • Objective: Students will be able to anticipate content for effective comprehension • Skills Focus: Common prediction-based question types 2. Skimming and Scanning • Objectives: Students will be able to identify techniques for grasping main ideas • Skills Focus: Quickly locating specific information 3. Locating Information and Question Types • Objectives: Students will be able to recognize patterns in TOEFL question types • Skills Focus: Targeted information retrieval skills 4. Identifying Facts and Opinions • Objectives: Students will be able to identify tools for distinguishing facts from opinions • Skills Focus: Recognizing Opinion-Based Language 5. Paraphrasing Techniques • Objective: Students will be able to identify structure for clear understanding • Skills Focus: Tips for accurate restatement 6. Recognizing Cause and Effect • Objective: Students will be able to link causes to their effects • Skills Focus: Identifying cause-effect patterns 7. Compare and Contrast • Objective: Students will be able to identify comparison indicators and contrast signals • Skills Focus: Differentiating between related concepts Reading Skill Contents 1. Making Predictions • Objective: Students will be able to anticipate content for effective comprehension • Skills Focus: Common prediction-based question types 2. Skimming and Scanning • Objectives: Students will be able to identify techniques for grasping main ideas • Skills Focus: Quickly locating specific information 3. Locating Information and Question Types • Objectives: Students will be able to recognize patterns in TOEFL question types • Skills Focus: Targeted information retrieval skills 4. Identifying Facts and Opinions • Objectives: Students will be able to identify tools for distinguishing facts from opinions • Skills Focus: Recognizing Opinion-Based Language 5. Paraphrasing Techniques • Objective: Students will be able to identify structure for clear understanding • Skills Focus: Tips for accurate restatement 6. Recognizing Cause and Effect • Objective: Students will be able to link causes to their effects • Skills Focus: Identifying cause-effect patterns 7. Compare and Contrast • Objective: Students will be able to identify comparison indicators and contrast signals • Skills Focus: Differentiating between related concepts Reading Skill Contents 1. Making Predictions • Objective: Students will be able to anticipate content for effective comprehension • Skills Focus: Common prediction-based question types 2. Skimming and Scanning • Objectives: Students will be able to identify techniques for grasping main ideas • Skills Focus: Quickly locating specific information 3. Locating Information and Question Types • Objectives: Students will be able to recognize patterns in TOEFL question types • Skills Focus: Targeted information retrieval skills 4. Identifying Facts and Opinions • Objectives: Students will be able to identify tools for distinguishing facts from opinions • Skills Focus: Recognizing Opinion-Based Language 5. Paraphrasing Techniques • Objective: Students will be able to identify structure for clear understanding • Skills Focus: Tips for accurate restatement 6. Recognizing Cause and Effect • Objective: Students will be able to link causes to their effects • Skills Focus: Identifying cause-effect patterns 7. Compare and Contrast • Objective: Students will be able to identify comparison indicators and contrast signals • Skills Focus: Differentiating between related concepts Copyright © 2025 by ETS. All rights reserved. TOEFL and TOEFL iBT are registered trademarks of ETS in the United States and other countries. The Eight-Point logo is a trademark of ETS. All other trademarks are property of their respective owners. Permission is granted to teachers to photocopy the designated pages of this publication for classroom use. This permission is limited to the individual teacher who purchased the publication and is not transferable. No other part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of ETS. Preface The journey to study abroad begins with a solid foundation in English language proficiency—and that journey starts in the classroom. The TOEFL iBT Official Lesson Plan is created to empower TOEFL Trainers and Teachers with structured, and comprehensive approach to teach the four core language skills assessed in the TOEFL test i.e. Reading, Listening, Speaking, and Writing. Each section of the Lesson Plan is meticulously crafted to help TOEFL trainers deliver focused, engaging, and effective training that aligns with the TOEFL test format and standards. More than just a teaching guide, this book is a practical toolkit. It aims to support trainers in not only delivering high-impact teaching but also in developing customized content based on the needs of the students. The activities and exercises included are designed to build confidence, provide test-taking strategies to help students achieve their desired scores and take the next step toward their study abroad aspirations. This book is dedicated to all TOEFL trainers and teachers —who play a vital role in shaping the future of students and help opening doors to global opportunities. Priank Chhabra Director Training ETS India & South Asia Preface The journey to study abroad begins with a solid foundation in English language proficiency—and that journey starts in the classroom. The TOEFL iBT Official Lesson Plan is created to empower TOEFL Trainers and Teachers with structured, and comprehensive approach to teach the four core language skills assessed in the TOEFL test i.e. Reading, Listening, Speaking, and Writing. Each section of the Lesson Plan is meticulously crafted to help TOEFL trainers deliver focused, engaging, and effective training that aligns with the TOEFL test format and standards. More than just a teaching guide, this book is a practical toolkit. It aims to support trainers in not only delivering high-impact teaching but also in developing customized content based on the needs of the students. The activities and exercises included are designed to build confidence, provide test-taking strategies to help students achieve their desired scores and take the next step toward their study abroad aspirations. This book is dedicated to all TOEFL trainers and teachers —who play a vital role in shaping the future of students and help opening doors to global opportunities. Priank Chhabra Director Training ETS India & South Asia The journey to study abroad begins with a solid foundation in English language proficiency—and that journey starts in the classroom. The TOEFL iBT Official Lesson Plan is created to empower TOEFL Trainers and Teachers with structured, and comprehensive approach to teach the four core language skills assessed in the TOEFL test i.e. Reading, Listening, Speaking, and Writing. Each section of the Lesson Plan is meticulously crafted to help TOEFL trainers deliver focused, engaging, and effective training that aligns with the TOEFL test format and standards. More than just a teaching guide, this book is a practical toolkit. It aims to support trainers in not only delivering high-impact teaching but also in developing customized content based on the needs of the students. The activities and exercises included are designed to build confidence, provide test-taking strategies to help students achieve their desired scores and take the next step toward their study abroad aspirations. This book is dedicated to all TOEFL trainers and teachers —who play a vital role in shaping the future of students and help opening doors to global opportunities. Director Training Table of Contents Reading 1 : General Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Reading 2 : Vocabulary Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 Reading 3 : Word Roots 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 Reading 4 : WordRoots2........................................................................14 Reading 5 : Affixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 Reading 6 : FactandNegativeFactQuestions...................................................22 Reading 7 : Vocabulary from Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Reading 8 : Organizational Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 Reading 9 : Identifying Main Ideas and Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 Reading 10 : Reading Section Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

iv iv

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Reading 1 : General Introduction

Objectives: TOEFL iBT Reading Skills:

TOEFL Listening Direction: Scan the QR code to listen to the audio tracks. https://www-vantage-stg-publish.ets.org/toefl/test-takers/ibt/ prepare/listening.html? TOEFL Listening Direction: Scan the QR code to listen to the audio tracks. https://www.ets.org/toefl/test-takers/ibt/prepare/listening. html?utm_source=toefl_official_lession_plan&utm_ medium=qr&utm_campaign=toefl-official_lesson_plan_book- IN-loy-2025-Q2-03&utm_content=listening TOEFL Speaking Direction: Scan the QR code to listen to the audio tracks. https://www.ets.org/toefl/test-takers/ibt/prepare/speaking. html?utm_source=toefl_official_lession_plan&utm_ medium=qr&utm_campaign=toefl-official_lesson_plan_book- IN-loy-2025-Q2-05&utm_content=speaking TOEFL Speaking Direction: Scan the QR code to listen to the audio tracks. https://www-vantage-stg-publish.ets.org/toefl/test-takers/ibt/ prepare/speaking.html?ld Purpose of the Reading Section The Reading section evaluates how well you can read and understand academic materials, similar to what you’d encounter in a classroom or during your studies . 1 . Vocabulary. Words being tested are highlighted. When you see a highlighted word as you are reading, pay attention to the sentences around it, because that word will be tested in the questions . The question will ask you to choose a synonym. Sometimes (but not always) there will be clues in the sentence or the sentences before and after that will help you figure out the word . 2 . Sentence simplification . Here, a whole sentence is highlighted, instead of just one word . You will be asked to choose the best paraphrase of the most important information. 3. Fact. These questions ask about specific information directly stated in the text. 4. Negative fact. These are similar to fact questions except that you are looking for something that is NOT true according to the passage or that is NOT mentioned in the passage, instead of something that is either true or mentioned . These questions will have the word NOT or EXCEPT in capital letters . 5. Inference. Here the information is not directly stated but is implied. You have to figure out what the passage is indirectly saying . 6. Rhetorical purpose. These questions ask why certain information was included, or what the author was trying to accomplish . 7 . Reference. These questions ask what a word—usually a pronoun—refers to. Sometimes the word refers to something in the same sentence, and sometimes in a previous sentence. https://www.ets.org/toefl/test-takers/ibt/prepare/toefl-writing. html?utm_source=toefl_official_test_prep_book&utm_medi- um=qr&utm_campaign=toefl-official_test_prep_book-IN-loy- 2025-Q3-04&utm_content=writing TOEFL Writing Direction: Scan the QR code to listen to the audio tracks. https://www-vantage-stg-publish.ets.org/toefl/test-takers/ibt/ prepare/writing.html?ls TOEFL Writing Direction: Scan the QR code to listen to the audio tracks. https://www.ets.org/toefl/test-takers/ibt/prepare/writing. html?utm_source=toefl_official_lession_plan&utm_ medium=qr&utm_campaign=toefl-official_lesson_plan_book- IN-loy-2025-Q2-04&utm_content=writing • Understand the question types in the Reading section. • Understand the skills tested in the Reading section. • Be aware of current reading level, strengths, and challenges related to reading skills. Warm-up Start by reflecting on your current strengths and challenges with reading. In this lesson, you will also learn how the TOEFL iBT Reading section is structured to better understand what to expect . Preparing for the TOEFL iBT Reading Section Before taking the TOEFL iBT, it is important to become familiar with the test format, structure, and the types of questions you will face . This knowledge will allow you to focus on understanding the content during the test, rather than trying to figure out the format while you’re taking it . https://www.ets.org/toefl/test-takers/ibt/prepare/toefl-listen- ing.html?utm_source=toefl_official_test_prep_book&utm_ medium=qr&utm_campaign=toefl-official_test_prep_book- IN-loy-2025-Q3-04&utm_content=listening 8. Insert Text. For this type of question, you will be given a sentence that is NOT in the reading and be asked where it should go. You will have a choice of four locations in the passage (often, but not always, within the same paragraph) and have to choose the appropriate location. 9. Summary. This kind of question is worth two points. You will be asked to choose 3 out of 6 sentences given that would create a summary of the passage’s main ideas . On the computer test, you will drag the three sentences you choose into a chart. https://www.ets.org/toefl/test-takers/ibt/prepare/toefl-speak- ing.html?utm_source=toefl_official_test_prep_book&utm_ medium=qr&utm_campaign=toefl-official_test_prep_book- IN-loy-2025-Q3-04&utm_content=speaking

The TOEFL iBT® Official Lesson Plan

Table of Contents

Reading 1 : General Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Reading 2 : Vocabulary Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 Reading 3 : Word Roots 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 Reading 4 : WordRoots2........................................................................14 Reading 5 : Affixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 Reading 6 : FactandNegativeFactQuestions...................................................22 Reading 7 : Vocabulary from Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Reading 8 : Organizational Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 Reading 9 : Identifying Main Ideas and Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 Reading 10 : Reading Section Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 Table of Contents Reading 1 : General Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Reading 2 : Vocabulary Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 Reading 3 : Word Roots 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 Reading 4 : WordRoots2........................................................................14 Reading 5 : Affixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 Reading 6 : FactandNegativeFactQuestions...................................................22 Reading 7 : Vocabulary from Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Reading 8 : Organizational Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 Reading 9 : Identifying Main Ideas and Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 Reading 10 : Reading Section Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

Reading 1 : General Introduction

Objectives: TOEFL iBT Reading Skills:

• Understand the question types in the Reading section. • Understand the skills tested in the Reading section. • Be aware of current reading level, strengths, and challenges related to reading skills.

Warm-up Start by reflecting on your current strengths and challenges with reading. In this lesson, you will also learn how the TOEFL iBT Reading section is structured to better understand what to expect . Preparing for the TOEFL iBT Reading Section Before taking the TOEFL iBT, it is important to become familiar with the test format, structure, and the types of questions you will face . This knowledge will allow you to focus on understanding the content during the test, rather than trying to figure out the format while you’re taking it . Purpose of the Reading Section The Reading section evaluates how well you can read and understand academic materials, similar to what you’d encounter in a classroom or during your studies . 1 . Vocabulary. Words being tested are highlighted. When you see a highlighted word as you are reading, pay attention to the sentences around it, because that word will be tested in the questions . The question will ask you to choose a synonym. Sometimes (but not always) there will be clues in the sentence or the sentences before and after that will help you figure out the word . 2 . Sentence simplification . Here, a whole sentence is highlighted, instead of just one word . You will be asked to choose the best paraphrase of the most important information. 3. Fact. These questions ask about specific information directly stated in the text. 4. Negative fact. These are similar to fact questions except that you are looking for something that is NOT true according to the passage or that is NOT mentioned in the passage, instead of something that is either true or mentioned . These questions will have the word NOT or EXCEPT in capital letters . 5. Inference. Here the information is not directly stated but is implied. You have to figure out what the passage is indirectly saying . 6. Rhetorical purpose. These questions ask why certain information was included, or what the author was trying to accomplish . 7 . Reference. These questions ask what a word—usually a pronoun—refers to. Sometimes the word refers to something in the same sentence, and sometimes in a previous sentence. 8. Insert Text. For this type of question, you will be given a sentence that is NOT in the reading and be asked where it should go. You will have a choice of four locations in the passage (often, but not always, within the same paragraph) and have to choose the appropriate location. 9. Summary. This kind of question is worth two points. You will be asked to choose 3 out of 6 sentences given that would create a summary of the passage’s main ideas . On the computer test, you will drag the three sentences you choose into a chart.

Reading Section Item Types Test Purpose: The TOEFL iBT Reading section assesses how well you can read and understand materials used in an academic environment.

Activity 1.1: For each item below, write down the type of item af- ter the colon. 1. Item type:

Example The word “ingenuity” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to …

2. Item type:

Example Which of the following best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

3. Item type:

Example According to paragraph 4, what has recent research on obsidian tools found at Olmec sites shown?

4. Item type:

Example In paragraph 4, all the following questions are answered EXCEPT: Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 as a main factor in the development of Teotihuacán?

5. Item type:

Example What can be inferred from paragraph 3 about Cuicuilco prior to 200 B.C.?

6. Item type:

Example In paragraph 6, the author discusses “The thriving obsidian operation” in order to… Why does the author mention the survival of “snakes, lizards, turtles, and crocodiles” in paragraph 3? What is the main purpose of paragraph 2?

7. Item type:

Example The word “there” in paragraph 4 refers to …

8. Item type:

Example Look at the four squares [ n ] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage . In fact, goods could be shipped more cheaply across the much greater distance of the Atlantic Ocean than they could from western New York to coastal cities. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [  ] to add the sentence to the passage . Transportation was becoming less of a problem for those who wished to move west and for those who had farm surpluses to send to market . [  ] Prior to 1815, western farmers who did not live on navigable waterways were connected to them only by dirt roads and mountain trails . [  ] Livestock could be driven across the mountains, but the cost of transporting bulky grains in this fashion was several times greater than their value in eastern markets . [  ] The first step toward an improvement of western transportation was the construction of turnpikes . [  ] These roads made possible a reduction in transportation costs and thus stimulated the commercialization of agriculture along their routes .

9. Item type: :

Example

An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Reflection Take a moment to reflect on what you’ve learned about the Reading section. Think of two ways you can improve your reading skills, and write them down on a separate sheet of paper. For example: • Practice reading academic articles and identifying main ideas. • Work on understanding the meaning of unfamiliar words by analyzing the context.

Reading 1 : General Introduction Answer Key

Activity 1.1

Reading Section Item Types 1 . Vocabulary. Words being tested are highlighted. When you see a highlighted word as you are reading, pay attention to the sentences around it, because that word will be tested in the questions . The question will ask you to choose a synonym. Sometimes (but not always) there will be clues in the sentence or the sentences before and after that will help you figure out the word . 2 . Sentence simplification . Here, a whole sentence is highlighted, instead of just one word . You will be asked to choose the best paraphrase of the most important information. 3. Fact. These questions ask about specific information directly stated in the text. 4. Negative fact. These are similar to fact questions except that you are looking for something that is NOT true according to the passage or that is NOT mentioned in the passage, instead of something that is either true or mentioned . These questions will have the word NOT or EXCEPT in capital letters . 5. Inference. Here the information is not directly stated but is implied. You have to figure out what the passage is indirectly saying . 6. Rhetorical purpose. These questions ask why certain information was included, or what the author was trying to accomplish . 7 . Reference. These questions ask what a word—usually a pronoun—refers to. Sometimes the word refers to something in the same sentence, and sometimes in a previous sentence. 8. Insert Text. For this type of question, you will be given a sentence that is NOT in the reading and be asked where it should go. You will have a choice of four locations in the passage (often, but not always, within the same paragraph) and have to choose the appropriate location. 9. Summary. This kind of question is worth two points. You will be asked to choose 3 out of 6 sentences given that would create a summary of the passage’s main ideas . On the computer test, you will drag the three sentences you choose into a chart.

Reading 2 : Vocabulary Cards

Objectives: TOEFL iBT Reading Skills: • Analyze a performance on a passage from the Reading section to understand current strengths and challenges . • Understand the importance of learning and remembering academic vocabulary. • Develop a system to learn, review, and remember vocabulary. Warm-up Start by understanding the session objectives: • You’ll practice with a real passage from the TOEFL Reading section. • Then, you’ll learn how to develop a system for learning and remembering academic vocabulary effectively. Vocabulary Development System • Academic vocabulary plays a key role in answering questions correctly and understanding complex passages . • Create and Use Vocabulary Cards; you will need a set of index cards o Write down new words on one side of a card and their meanings or example sentences on the other. These will be considered flashcards. o Use TOEFL materials and other academic sources to select words. o Keep your cards organized so you can review them regularly. • Set a Weekly Goal Decide how many words to learn each week . For example, aim for five new words a day or 20 a week—this is achievable and helps you stay consistent.

Activity 2.1: A Reading Passage and Set of Questions

Directions: Read the passage. Extinction of the Dinosaurs

Paleozoic Era

334 to 248 million years ago 245 to 65 million years ago

Mesozoic Era -Triassic Period -Jurassic Period -Cretaceous Period

Cenozoic Era

65 million years ago to the present

1 Paleontologists have argued for a long time that the demise of the dinosaurs was caused by climatic alterations associated with slow changes in the positions of continents and seas resulting from plate tectonics. Off and on throughout the Cretaceous (the last period of the Mesozoic era, during which dinosaurs flourished), large shallow seas covered extensive areas of the continents. Data from diverse sources, including geochemical evidence preserved in seafloor sediments, indicate that the Late Cretaceous climate was milder than today’s . The days were not too hot, nor the nights too cold . The summers were not too warm, nor the winters too frigid . The shallow seas on the continents probably buffered the temperature of the nearby air, keeping it relatively constant . 2 At the end of the Cretaceous, the geological record shows that these seaways retreated from the continents back into the major ocean basins. No one knows why. Over a period of about 100,000 years, while the seas pulled back, climates around the world became dramatically more extreme: warmer days, cooler nights; hotter summers, colder winters . Perhaps dinosaurs could not tolerate these extreme temperature changes and became extinct. 3 If true, though, why did cold-blooded animals such as snakes, lizards, turtles, and crocodiles survive the freezing winters and torrid summers? These animals are at the mercy of the climate to maintain a livable body temperature . It’s hard to understand why they would not be affected, whereas dinosaurs were left too crippled to cope, especially if, as some scientists believe, dinosaurs were warm-blooded . Critics also point out that the shallow seaways had retreated from and advanced on the continents numerous times during the Mesozoic, so why did the dinosaurs survive the climatic changes associated with the earlier fluctuations but not with this one? Although initially appealing, the hypothesis of a simple climatic change related to sea levels is insufficient to explain all the data . 4 Dissatisfaction with conventional explanations for dinosaur extinctions led to a surprising observation that, in turn, has suggested a new hypothesis . Many plants and animals disappear abruptly from the fossil record as one moves from layers of rock documenting the end of the Cretaceous up into rocks representing the beginning of the Cenozoic (the era after the Mesozoic). Between the last layer of Cretaceous rock and the first layer of Cenozoic rock, there is often a thin layer of clay. Scientists felt that they could get an idea of how long the extinctions took by determining how long it took to deposit this one centimeter of clay and they thought they could determine the time it took to deposit the clay by determining the amount of the element iridium (Ir) it contained . 5 It has not been common at Earth’s surface since the very beginning of the planet’s history. Because it usually exists in a metallic state, it was preferentially incorporated in Earth’s core as the planet cooled and consolidated. Ir is found in high concentrations in some meteorites, in which the solar system’s original chemical composition is preserved. Even today, microscopic meteorites continually bombard Earth, falling on both land and sea. By measuring how many of these meteorites fall to Earth over a given period of time, scientists can estimate how long it might have taken to deposit the observed amount of Ir in the boundary clay. These calculations suggest that a period of about one million years would have been required. However, other reliable evidence suggests that the deposition of the boundary clay could not have taken one million years . So the unusually high concentration of Ir seems to require a special explanation . 6 In view of these facts, scientists hypothesized that a single large asteroid, about 10 to 15 kilometers across, collided with Earth, and the resulting fallout created the boundary clay. Their calculations show that the impact kicked up a dust cloud that cut off sunlight for several months, inhibiting photosynthesis in plants; decreased surface temperatures on continents to below freezing; caused extreme episodes of acid rain; and significantly raised long-term global temperatures through the greenhouse effect. This disruption of the food chain and climate would have eradicated the dinosaurs and other organisms in less than fifty years.

Directions: Answer the questions. Then write a number from 1 – 5 to show how confident you are about your answer.

1 = not confident at all 2 = not very confident 3 = somewhat confident 4 = pretty confident 5 = completely confident

1 . According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true of the Late Cretaceous climate? A . Summers were very warm and winters were very cold . B . Shallow seas on the continents caused frequent temperature changes . C. The climate was very similar to today’s climate. D. The climate did not change dramatically from season to season.

2 . Why does the author mention the survival of “snakes, lizards, turtles, and crocodiles” in paragraph 3? A . To argue that dinosaurs may have become extinct because they were not cold- blooded animals B. To question the adequacy of the hypothesis that climatic change related to sea levels caused the extinction of the dinosaurs C. To present examples of animals that could maintain a livable body temperature more easily than dinosaurs D. To support a hypothesis that these animals were not as sensitive to climate changes in the Cretaceous period as they are today 3. According to paragraph 3, which of the following is true of changes in climate before the Cretaceous period and the effect of these changes on dinosaurs? A . Climate changes associated with the movement of seaways before the Cretaceous period did not cause dinosaurs to become extinct. B. Changes in climate before the Cretaceous period caused severe fluctuation in sea level, resulting in the extinction of the dinosaurs. C. Frequent changes in climate before the Cretaceous period made dinosaurs better able to maintain a livable body temperature . D. Before the Cretaceous period there were few changes in climate, and dinosaurs flourished.

4. The word “fluctuations” in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to A. extremes

B. retreats C. periods D. variations

5. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 4 ? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. A . The fossil record suggests that there was an abrupt extinction of many plants and animals at the end of the Mesozoic era. B. Few fossils of the Mesozoic era have survived in the rocks that mark the end of the Cretaceous. C. Fossils from the Cretaceous period of the Mesozoic up to the beginning of the Cenozoic era have been removed from the layers of rock that surrounded them . D. Plants and animals from the Mesozoic era were unable to survive in the Cenozoic era.

6. In paragraph 4, all the following questions are answered EXCEPT: A . Why is there a layer of clay between the rocks of the Cretaceous and Cenozoic? B. Why were scientists interested in determining how long it took to deposit the layer of clay at the end of the Cretaceous? C. What was the effect of the surprising observation scientists made? D. Why did scientists want more information about the dinosaur extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous? 7 . Paragraph 5 implies that a special explanation of the Ir in the boundary clay is needed because A . the Ir in microscopic meteorites reaching Earth during the Cretaceous period would have been incorporated into Earth’s core B. the Ir in the boundary clay was deposited much more than a million years ago C. the concentration of Ir in the boundary clay is higher than in microscopic meteorites D. the amount of Ir in the boundary clay is too great to have come from microscopic meteorites during the time the boundary clay was deposited

8. The word “disruption” in paragraph 6 is closest in meaning to A. exhaustion B. disturbance C. modification D. disappearance

9 . Look at the four letters that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage . Consequently, the idea that the Ir in the boundary clay came from microscopic meteorites cannot be accepted. Where would the sentence best fit? Ir has not been common at Earth’s surface since the very beginning of the planet’s history. Because it usually exists in a metallic state, it was preferentially incorporated in Earth’s core as the planet cooled and consolidated. Ir is found in high concentrations in some meteorites, in which the solar system’s original chemical composition is preserved. Even today, microscopic meteorites continually bombard Earth, falling on both land and sea. By measuring how many of these meteorites fall to Earth over a given period of time, scientists can estimate how long it might have taken to deposit the observed amount of Ir in the boundary clay . (A) These calculations suggest that a period of about one million years would have been required. (B) However, other reliable evidence suggests that the deposition of the boundary clay could not have taken one million years . (C) So the unusually high concentration of Ir seems to require a special explanation. (D)

A . Option A B. Option B C. Option C D. Option D

10 . Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage . Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Write your answer choices after each of the three bullets . You can either write the letter of your answer choice or you can copy the sentence.

For a long time scientists have argued that the extinction of the dinosaurs was related to climate change. • • • Answer Choices A . Extreme changes in daily and seasonal climates preceded the retreat of the seas back into the major ocean basins . B. A simple climate change does not explain some important data related to the extinction of the dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous. C. The retreat of the seaways at the end of the Cretaceous has not been fully explained. D. The abruptness of extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous and the high concentration of Ir found in clay deposited at that time have fueled the development of a new hypothesis . E. Some scientists hypothesize that the extinction of the dinosaurs resulted from the effects of an asteroid collision with Earth . F. Boundary clay layers like the one between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic are used by scientists to determine the rate at which an extinct species declined. Reflection • Reflect on which questions in the passage were the most difficult for you and why. Note how often unfamiliar vocabulary made a question challenging. • Set a weekly goal to create and review vocabulary cards . Keep them handy during your study sessions so you can quiz yourself and reinforce your learning .

Reading 2: Vocabulary Cards

Answer Key

Activity 2.1

A Reading Passage and Set of Questions 1 . Fact or detail . D 2 . Rhetorical purpose . B

3 . Fact or detail . A 4. Vocabulary. D

5 . Sentence simplification . A 6. Negative fact or detail. A

7 . Inference . D 8. Vocabulary. B

9. Sentence insertion. C 10. Summary chart. B,D,E

Reading 3: Word Roots 1

Objectives: TOEFL iBT Reading Skills: • Practice using word roots to understand the meaning of words. • Learn and practice some common word roots.

Introduction • Begin by exploring how you can use word roots to deduce the meanings of unfamiliar words in the TOEFL Reading section. • Analyze a few example words by examining their roots, prefixes, or suffixes . Try to guess their meanings based on this analysis. • Afterward, review the correct meanings to ensure you understand how word roots helped in figuring them out . This process will enhance your ability to tackle unknown words effectively during the test . Application • TOEFL vocabulary questions often focus on words that appear in academic texts from various fields . • Even if you don’t recognize a word, strategies like looking for clues in the sentence or the word itself can help . • Many English words are made up of a root (base part) and affixes (prefixes or suffixes). • Memorizing common roots and affixes helps you: o Understand parts of unfamiliar words. o Answer questions even when you don’t know the exact definition. o Expand your vocabulary more efficiently.

Activity 3.1 • Choose a list of common roots and a few associated words • For each word: Write down the word and its root on a separate sheet of paper. Create a sentence using that word but leave a blank space where the word would go. For example:

The__gave a million dollars to complete the new library.

benefactor

Word Roots, Activity 3.2 Review the following words. What do you think each word means? Write one or two guesses for each one. Also, identify the part of speech for each word: N for noun, V for verb, Adj for adjective, or Adv for ad- verb. Then, look up each word in a dictionary to check your answers. Word Meaning Part of Speech a . hyper sweet b . simplify c . biography d . audiologist e . discontinuous f . kilometer g . abnormal h . microbiology i . regenerate j . mismanagement Some Common Word Roots Root Meaning Examples 1 . gen kind; type; class generation; genre; homogenous;generality 2 . bene good; well benefit; benefactor; benign; beneficiary 3 . meta- change Metamorphosis; metastasize; metaphor; metabolic 4 . ject throw projector; trajectory; conjecture; dejected 5 . fract break; broken fracture; fractional; fractious; infraction 6 . sens, sent feel sentimental; sentiment; insensate; dissent 7 . voc call invoke; vocation; vocalize; irrevocable 8 . phon voice; sound megaphone; phonetics; cacophony;euphonious 9 . oper work operative; inoperable; cooperation;cooperation 10 . cred believe; trust incredulous; credible; creditor; discredit 11 . ambu; ambi walk or go around amble; ambulant; preamble;somnambulate 12 . son sound sonar; sonata; dissonance; resonate 13 . vid see; take care evidence; provide; provident; videotape 14. termin boundary; limit interminable; indeterminate; exterminate; undetermined 15 . greg gather together; flock gregarious; congregate; egregious;segregate Reflection • Find and list additional examples of words that share the same roots. • Reflect on how recognizing roots can assist in learning and understanding new vocabulary. • Make it a habit to identify the root of any new word you encounter. This practice will help you recognize and understand related words more easily in the future .

Reading 4: Word Roots 2

Objectives: TOEFL iBT Reading Skills:

• Review and practice using some common word roots to figure out vocabulary. • Understand how word roots can help with TOEFL iBT vocabulary questions .

Introduction Look at the following words: transport, import, export, portable . What do these words have in common? Try to guess what the root (port) might mean based on the words. Write down your guess on a separate sheet of paper. The goal of this exercise is to help you understand how word roots can make it easier to figure out new words, especially on the TOEFL iBT test . Review and Practice • If you’ve created vocabulary flashcards, spend a few minutes reviewing them . Work on remembering the roots and their meanings . • As you study or read, try to find example sentences that use words with roots you’ve learned . Write them down on a separate sheet of paper and note the root. You can add these words to your vocabulary flashcards . Word Roots, Activity 4.1 Read the excerpt . Then choose the word or phrase that is closest in meaning to the highlighted word in the sentence . 1 . What could cause such high rates of extinction [of families of marine organisms]? There are several hypotheses, including warming or cooling of Earth, changes in seasonal fluctuations or ocean currents, and changing positions of the continents. Biological hypotheses include ecological changes brought about by the evolution of cooperation between insects and flowering plants or of bottom-feeding predators in the oceans . A . working together

B . intelligence C. appearance D. losing strength

2. Each mass extinction [of families of marine organisms] may have had a different cause. Evidence points to hunting by humans and habitat destruction as the likely causes for the current mass extinction. A . scientists and researchers B. insects and plants

C. facts and information D. history and literature

3. As an example, plants make chemicals toxic to fungal and bacterial parasites, along with ones toxic to predatory animals (sometimes they are the same chemicals) . In vertebrates, the immune system provides a multiple defense against internal parasites. A. explains B . illustrates C . gives D. removes 4. Spread rapidly by mosquitoes, the virus devastated the rabbit population. The virus was less deadly to the offspring of surviving rabbits, however, and it caused less and less harm over the years. Apparently, genotypes (the genetic make-up of an organism) in the rabbit population were selected that were better able

to resist the parasite. A . useful; functional B. unusual; abnormal C. complex; highly developed D. inborn; natural

5. The astrolabe had long been the primary instrument for navigation, having been introduced in the eleventh century. It operated by measuring the height of the Sun and the fixed stars; by calculating the angles created by these points, it determined the degree of latitude at which one stood. (The problem of determining longitude, though, was not solved until the eighteenth century.) A. changed

B. worked C. finished D . began

6. While it’s certainly true that traditional pesticides have been destructive to birds, it’s incorrect to project this history into the future . A . forget B. forecast; predict

C. argue against D. deny; dismiss

7 . Another example of mutualism would be the bull’s horn acacia tree, which grows in Central and South America . The tree provides a place to live for ants of the genus Pseudomyrmex . A. category B . size C. location D. illness or disease Reflection: • Write down one idea or strategy for yourself about how you can improve at learning and remembering word roots . Think about what works best for you, like creating flashcards, looking for patterns, or using the words in sentences.

Reading 4: Word Roots 2

Answer Key

Activity 4.1

Word Roots Practice 1 . A; oper; work 2. C; vid; see 3 . C; vid; take care 4. D; gen; kind, class, or type 5. B; oper; work 6. B; ject; throw 7 . A; gen; kind, class, or type

Reading 5 : Affixes

Objectives: TOEFL iBT Reading Skills: • Review and practice some common prefixes and suffixes. • Practice recognizing parts of speech in context. • Practice using knowledge of word parts to determine the meaning of a word.

Introduction In this section, you will explore how understanding affixes can help you figure out unfamiliar words on the TOEFL iBT test . First, let’s think about affixes . These are parts added to words that change or modify their meanings . There are two main types of affixes: prefixes and suffixes. To begin, consider the word usual . Now, let’s add the prefix un-, changing it to unusual . This makes the word opposite in meaning. Then, add -ly to the word, transforming it into unusually. Notice how each change affects the meaning of the word. Think about how the meaning shifts when prefixes or suffixes are added. This will help you in understanding new words you may come across on the test. Types of Affixes Prefixes are placed at the beginning of words and can alter their meaning in various ways . For example, the prefix un- means “not” (e .g ., unhappy = not happy, unusual = not usual) . Prefixes like extra- mean “beyond” (e .g ., extraordinary = beyond ordinary), and inter- means “between” (e .g ., international = between nations) . Even if you don’t know the root of a word, the prefix can give you valuable clues about its meaning. When you encounter a word you don’t know, take a moment to analyze the prefix—this can help you make a more informed guess about the word’s meaning . Suffixes, on the other hand, are added at the end of words and often tell you what part of speech the word is . For example, adding -ly to an adjective turns it into an adverb (e.g., quick becomes quickly), and adding -ness turns an adjective into a noun (e .g ., happy becomes happiness) . While the TOEFL iBT Reading section doesn’t test parts of speech directly, understanding whether a word is a noun, verb, adjective, or adverb can help you better comprehend unfamiliar words in context.

Practice with Prefixes, Activity 5.1 1 . Study the prefix chart and then write down some examples in the third column.

Examples

Prefix

Meaning

a-, ab-, an-, non-

not; the opposite of

anti-, counter-

against; in the opposite way

co-

together between

inter- mal- mis- poly-

bad; wrong

badly; wrongly

many

post-

after

Examples

Prefix

Meaning

pre-

before

re-

again

semi-

half; partial under; below

sub-

super- trans-

above; more than

across; over

un-, dis-, de-

reverses the meaning of the verb

under-

below; too little

2 . Use a prefix from the chart to complete the words . a. A ship that sails across the Atlantic Ocean is a Atlantic Ocean liner. b. An unusual result is an normal result. c. A person who doesn’t do their work well enough is an performing employee. d. The patient needed some operative care after the surgeon finished her work . e. It’s interesting for grandchildren and children to talk about generational differences. f. That piece of music has a beautiful phonic structure that combines many different melodies. g . You will need to register for the course two weeks in advance . h . Unfortunately, the construction was standard and had to be redone. i. That isn’t what I meant at all. I’m afraid you understood me. j . It’s important to cycle packages made from metal or glass so they can be used again. Practice with Suffixes, Activity 5.2 1 . What part of speech do the following suffixes indicate? Write them in the correct category. Then think of at least one example for each. -able, -al, -ance/-ence, -ate (can be two!), -ful, -fy, -ic, -ist, -ity, -ive, -ize, -ly, -ment, -ness, -ology, -ous, -tion, -ward

Noun

Verb

Adverb

Adjective

Suffix

Example Words

2 . Read the TOEFL iBT Reading passage excerpts . Then consider the meaning of the underlined words . What part of speech is the word? What does the prefix mean? What do you think the word means? Can you guess what any of its roots mean? Write your findings on a separate sheet of paper.

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