Using Artificial Intelligence to Support Students with Disa…

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Using Artificial Intelligence to Support Students with Disabilities with Writing

In today's schools, teachers assess student knowledge and understanding via writing. In history class, students are expect- ed to detail the events that led up to the signing of the Dec- laration of Independence in a well-structured essay. In English class, students present well-cited argumentative papers on con- troversial issues to persuade readers. Writing is a complex and challenging activity for all students, but particularly those with disabilities (Graham et al., 2017). To write a cohesive and coherent essay, students must first ground their work by understanding the topic and possessing the necessary background knowledge. Keeping their overall ar- gumentative purpose in mind, they must organize their ideas into a structure, such as the five-paragraph essay, often starting with pre-writing or brainstorming. Once drafting begins, the stu- dent must simultaneously manage an overwhelming cascade of tasks: they must hold the paragraph's focus while constructing a strong topic sentence; they must formulate the content for the sentence while applying the rules of grammar and syntax (like subject-verb agreement); and finally, they must manage the lowest-level tasks. These mechanics involve recalling the precise words, translating sounds into correct spelling (letter-by-letter), applying capitalization and punctuation rules, and even coor- dinating the fine motor skills required to physically draw the letters without ripping the paper. The act of holding all these conceptual, structural, and mechanical demands in working

memory at once is what makes the writing process profoundly exhausting for all learners, especially those who struggle with writing (Goldman, Carreon, Smith & Zimmerman, 2024). UNDERSTANDING WRITING CHALLENGES ACROSS DISABILITIES For students with disabilities, these challenges are frequently intensified. Students with learning disabilities, for example, may struggle with spelling, sentence construction, or organizing ideas (Graham et al., 2017). Students with attention-deficit/hy- peractivity disorder (ADHD) may find it difficult to sustain focus, plan, or monitor their work (Creelman, 2021). Students with fine motor challenges may expend significant effort simply to form letters (Seyll & Content, 2020). Others may struggle with lan- guage processing, making it difficult to translate their thoughts into written words (Williams & Larkin, 2023). When these chal- lenges accumulate, writing becomes less about expressing ideas and more about managing barriers. Students with language-based disabilities may also strug- gle with narrative structure, cohesion, and academic language (Williams & Larkin, 2023). Writing tasks that require explaining relationships, describing cause and effect, or making inferences can be especially difficult when students have limited access to the language structures needed to do so. As a result, teachers may see writing that appears off-topic or underdeveloped, even

SAMANTHA R. GOLDMAN is an assistant research professor at the University of Kansas and Co PI on Project AI SCORE, an OSEP funded project that uses an Al-supported digital progress monitoring tool to improve student writing outcomes . Her research focuses on leveraging existing, emerging, and innovative technologies, including AI, with evidence-based practices and high-quality instruction to improve writing outcomes for students with disabilities/struggling learners. DR. SEAN J. SMITH is a Professor of Special Education at the University of Kansas and a nationally recog- nized researcher, presenter, scholar, and author. His work centers on the practical use of technology and artificial intelligence to support teaching and learning for all students. Dr. Smith has worked with thousands of teachers and school leaders across the country, helping them implement effective, tech-supported strategies in PreK–12 class - rooms. He also leads multiple federally funded research projects focused on AI-driven tools that enhance student learning and educator effectiveness.

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ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY AS A FOUNDATION FOR WRITING SUPPORT For decades, Individualized Education Program (IEP) teams have relied on assistive technology (AT) as a cornerstone of sup- port for students with disabilities who struggle with writing. Tools such as word prediction, speech recognition, and text-to- speech have long been used to reduce barriers related to tran- scription, spelling, language formulation, and access to text. These tools have enabled students to more fully engage in the writing process by allowing them to focus on ideas and meaning rather than the mechanics of writing alone. Many of the AT tools educators rely on today have long incor- porated forms of artificial intelligence (AI) to support students with disabilities in writing. Word prediction software anticipates a student's intended words based on letter patterns and context, reducing the spelling and cognitive load required to generate text. Speech-to-text tools convert spoken language into written form, allowing students with fine motor challenges, dysgraphia, or expressive writing difficulties to capture their ideas more effi- ciently. Text-to-speech tools read student writing aloud, helping students identify errors, improve sentence clarity, and engage in self-editing, particularly valuable for students who struggle with reading their own work. Grammar and spelling support flag errors in real time, providing immediate feedback that fa- cilitates learning rather than delaying it until teacher review. Graphic organizers and digital outlining tools help students plan, sequence, and structure their ideas, supporting executive functioning and organization throughout the writing process. Collectively, these tools have played an essential role in helping students with disabilities participate in writing tasks that might otherwise be inaccessible. As access to one-to-one devices has increased and the cost of educational software has decreased, tools that once required extensive assessment processes and specialized personnel are now readily available in general and special education class- rooms (Goldman, Carreon, & Smith, 2024). For many teachers, these tools have become routine instructional supports rather than specialized accommodations, benefiting a wide range of learners beyond those with identified disabilities. RESPONSIBLE AI USAGE What has changed more recently is the rapid advancement of generative AI. These newer tools have expanded what is possible by supporting students across multiple stages of the writing process, including brainstorming, drafting, revising, and receiving feedback. At the same time, they have sparked under- standable concerns among educators. Questions about cheat- ing, overreliance, and the impact on critical thinking have placed writing at the center of ongoing debates about AI in education. While these concerns deserve attention, focusing exclusively on risks ignores a key truth: when integrated into effective in- struction, AI-powered tools can extend the legacy of assistive

when the student has a solid conceptual understanding of the content. For students with autism spectrum disorder in need of level one supports, writing challenges often relate to organization, perspective-taking, and flexibility (Hilvert et al., 2019). These students may produce writing that is highly detailed in one area but lacks overall coherence, or writing that accounts for the needs of treader's needsties with executive functioning can make planning, revising, and self-monitoring especially taxing, while challenges with. At the same time, communication may affect persuasive or narrative writing tasks that require under- standing an audience's or a character's motivations. Students with intellectual disabilities also face unique writing challenges. These students often require significant scaffolding to engage in writing tasks, including support with idea gener- ation, sentence construction, and sustaining effort over time (Bakken et al., 2022). Traditional writing assignments may place an unrealistic emphasis on independence, unintentionally lim- iting students' opportunities to demonstrate their understand- ing fully. With appropriate supports, however, students with intellectual disabilities can participate in authentic writing ex- periences that emphasize communication and expression rather than mechanics alone. Writing can also be particularly challenging for students with physical disabilities or motor impairments. When handwriting or keyboarding requires substantial effort, students may devote most of their cognitive resources to the physical act of writing, leaving little capacity for higher-level thinking such as idea de- velopment or organization. In these cases, writing output may significantly underestimate what the student knows or is capa- ble of expressing. Across disability groups, a common theme emerges: writing often creates multiple barriers to students' ability to communi- cate knowledge, ideas, and understanding. When these barriers are not addressed, writing assessments may reflect a student's disability-related challenges more than their true learning. Rec- ognizing this complexity is essential for educators seeking to design instruction and supports that allow all students to partic- ipate meaningfully in writing tasks. Compounding the difficulty, many struggling writers are also struggling readers (Bones & Bouck, 2017). Writing assignments often require students to read and comprehend complex texts, extract key information, and integrate evidence into their writ- ing. For these students, the cognitive load begins long before they start drafting. By the time they are asked to write, their mental resources may already be depleted. As a result, writing tasks can mask what students truly know, understand, or can do, particularly when expectations emphasize mechanics and struc- ture over meaning.

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technology and further dismantle barriers for struggling writers. Rather than representing a sudden or radical shift, generative AI should be viewed as an extension of the same goal that has guided AT use for decades: to provide students with meaningful access to learning and opportunities to express what they know. Despite growing interest, many educators continue to ap- proach AI with understandable caution, especially in writing in- struction. Concerns about students using AI to generate entire essays, bypass the writing process, or undermine the develop- ment of critical thinking skills are common and valid. Writing has long been viewed as a core academic skill, and teachers rightly worry about tools that could short-circuit the effort, persistence, and problem-solving that writing requires. At the same time, focusing exclusively on the risk of misuse can limit an equally important reality, that many students, in- cluding those with disabilities, already face significant barriers that prevent them from fully engaging in the writing process. When used intentionally, AI-supported tools can help remove these barriers without replacing instruction or diminishing ex- pectations. Just as earlier AT tools allowed students to bypass mechanical challenges while still engaging in meaningful writ- ing, newer AI tools can support planning, language generation, organization, and revision in ways that keep students actively involved in their work. It is vital to appreciate that these supports are not limited to students with identified disabilities. When thoughtfully integrat- ed into instruction, AI tools can benefit a wide range of learners by providing scaffolds, feedback, and multiple entry points into writing tasks. The instructional challenge, then, is not whether AI should be used, but how it can be used responsibly. This would include clear expectations, guided practice, and teacher over- sight to support learning rather than replace it. When framed this way, AI becomes less about cheating and more about ac- cess, engagement, and supporting students in becoming more capable and confident writers. A brief note on the ethical and responsible use of AI in educa- tion is warranted. As with any educational technology, teachers should review their district's technology guidelines and each tool's privacy and use policies before classroom implementa- tion. The tools and examples highlighted in this article are de- signed to support instruction through intentional teacher guid- ance and student-teacher interaction. AI tools cannot replace instruction; they are at their best when paired with active teach- ing, providing a scaffold for learning rather than a substitute for it. ALIGNING AI-SUPPORTED TOOLS WITH WRITING INSTRUCTION DECISION-MAKING Given the complexity of writing and the diverse needs of students with disabilities, effective writing instruction requires more than a single strategy or tool. For many students, writing difficulties are directly connected to IEP-identified needs such as

language development, written expression, executive function- ing, or access to grade-level content. Addressing these needs requires specially designed instruction (SDI) that intentionally targets barriers within the writing process while maintaining high expectations for student learning. The remainder of this article is organized around the stages of the writing process commonly used in classroom instruction and reflected in IEP goals, instructional planning, and MTSS frameworks. Students may experience breakdowns at different points in this process, including when activating background knowledge, generating ideas, organizing information, drafting text, or revising and editing their work. By aligning AI-supported tools to specific stages of writing, classroom teachers can more precisely match supports to student needs rather than relying on broad, one-size-fits-all accommodations. Within each of the following sections, examples are provided to illustrate how AI-supported tools can function as part of SDI, Tier 2 or Tier 3 interventions, or universally designed classroom supports. These tools are presented as ways to reduce barriers related to the writing process, including language, organization, transcription, and self-monitoring, allowing students to demon- strate their knowledge and skills. When used intentionally, AI-supported tools can help student progress toward IEP goals, inform instructional decisions through formative feedback, and increase student engagement in writing tasks across instruc- tional settings. This article does not seek to argue that AI is a replacement for instruction or assessment. Instead, it reinforces the teacher's role in selecting, modeling, and monitoring tools based on student data and instructional goals. By embedding AI supports into the writing process, educators can better align technology use with evidence-based writing practices, MTSS problem-solving, and ongoing progress monitoring, ensuring supports remain re- sponsive, purposeful, and instructionally sound. ACTIVATING BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE Starting as early as fourth grade, there is a shift from learning to writing to writing to learn. Students frequently draw on class materials or their own research to formulate arguments and document their work. Oftentimes, literary analyses and other writing tasks require students to cite source texts. There lies an- other challenge for many struggling writers. Because struggling writers are often struggling readers (Bone & Bouck, 2017), the decoding and comprehension skills required to activate back- ground knowledge add another level of complexity and chal- lenge. For teachers, AI tools enable them to present the same material in multiple formats and at various levels. For students, these tools provide independence and empower them as learn- ers. Content area writing requires the use of textual evidence. Diffit (https://web.diffit.me/), for instance, repurposes and auto- matically differentiates YouTube videos, PDFs, and more. Teach-

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ers simply upload their original source and let Diffit do the rest. It can create summaries of videos at a chosen reading level, grab images from the internet that relate to the content, and even create graphic organizers and vocabulary lists tailored to the uploaded content. Once created, these can be shared with stu- dents via PDF or through the Google or Microsoft Suite. Whereas Diffit repurposes content into worksheets, NotebookLM (https://notebooklm.google/) transforms static content into multimedia material. Teachers can upload course- specific content (e.g., PDFs, videos, text) to the platform to instantly generate custom podcasts, mind maps, study guides, and videos based exclusively on the uploaded material. The podcasts generated sound surprisingly real. An added feature is that students can "join" the podcast and interact with the hosts, asking clarifying questions or steering the conversation. The videos are narrated slideshows, where the images, text, and voices are all generated by the AI. Each of these resources can be shared with students (and parents) to use before and during the writing process. BRAINSTORMING AND PLANNING The initial writing phase, which involves brainstorming and planning using traditional methods such as mind mapping and outlining, is designed to help students focus on the topic and generate foundational ideas. When embedding AI tools into this stage, it is imperative to consider the assignment's type and pur- pose. AI tools are particularly useful for informative writing be- cause they can rapidly generate factual content, similar to what a student might find in a textbook. However, students must be taught to confirm the validity of all AI-generated information. For example, a tool that generates a mind map of the events leading to World War I is not creating new knowledge; it is pre- senting existing, public-domain facts. Therefore, it remains es- sential for the student to cross-reference and confirm these gen- erated ideas by finding relevant citations within their assigned course materials. Aha Apple (https://www.ahaapple.com/) specializes in solv- ing the "blank page" problem by assisting secondary students with topic selection and question development. The "Question Storm" tool helps students refine essay prompts into clear, spe- cific writing questions. With the "Get New Ideas" function, stu- dents input their research subject, and the AI immediately gen- erates a list of focused approaches. From there, the tool offers additional support, allowing users to ask the AI to evaluate an idea, provide research, or generate images (premium feature). IdeaMap (https://ideamap.ai/) is a generative mind-map- ping tool. Best used either in small groups or one-on-one with a teacher, students use this tool by typing in their informative essay prompt into the "describe your challenge" search bar. Af- ter clicking the "brainstorm" button, IdeaMap begins creating a complex, and slightly overwhelming, color-coded mind map. There are several options for simplifying the map. First, a teacher

YouTube Video - Aha Apple https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZSl0BzOIcmk

YouTube Video - Idea Map https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lkEa1r_7A-4

can zoom in on a specific component of the map. Additionally, ideas can be folded or hidden by clicking the three dots under a rectangle and selecting "fold". Maps can be further personalized by adding arms, attaching notes (e.g., vid- eos, links, textbook pages), and even uploading related files. Fur- ther, IdeaMap allows users to change the complexity of the text in each rectangle by clicking the magic wand and asking the AI to simplify the language. Several other tools also provide mind mapping support. Mind Map Wizards (https://mindmapwizard.com/), for instance, uses AI to generate simplified, organized maps based on either a topic entered in the search bar or the content extracted from an uploaded PDF. Ember.ly (https://ember.ly/app/home) mcre- ates the simplest mind maps, often breaking ideas into short, one- or two-word branches. This makes them an excellent start- ing point, encouraging students to expand and develop the initial concepts with their own detailed ideas, while providing scaffolding to bypass the "blank page" problem many writers experience.

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DRAFTING Much of the controversy around AI and writing revolves around the drafting stage. The purpose of drafting is to generate ideas into coherent, well-organized paragraphs. While genera- tive AI can generate entire essays, using it in this way prevents the student from fully participating in the drafting process. The purpose of the tools in this article is to empower students to grow as writers by supporting skill development, not to encour- age them to offload challenging tasks entirely onto AI. Speech recognition tools such as Google Voice Typing and Microsoft Dictate have been used to support students with fine motor challenges or those who do better sharing their ideas out loud than using paper for decades. As generative AI becomes more advanced, so do speech recognition tools. Rather than simply transcribing the student's words, tools like AdutorAI (https://www.adutorai.com/) and Audiopen (https://audiopen. ai/) provide extra supports by cleaning up language (removing ums), summarizing, restyling, and even translating. EDITING, REVISING, AND PROVIDING FEEDBACK ON WRITING The process of editing and revising can be trying for strug- gling writers. Key to self-editing is the ability to analyze one's own work for grammatical and mechanical errors and awkward sentences. Oftentimes, however, students who struggle with writing also struggle with reading. Tools such as text-to-speech can help students hear their work. Other, more powerful AI tools can provide more advanced supports. Wonder AI (https://www. getwonderai.com/), Text Buddy (https://textbuddy.com/ai-writ- ing-assistant), and Pro Writing Aid (https://app.prowritingaid. com/) identify grammar and spelling errors. Beyond basic edit- ing, they can elevate the quality of the writing by focusing on style, tone, conciseness, and precision, through rephrasing, vo- cabulary suggestions, and sentence adjustments. For teachers, providing high-quality feedback is a time-con- suming yet necessary task. With EditGPT (https://editgpt.app/ dashboard), the AI edits writing using track changes. Editing op- tions include proofreading, streamlining content, changing the style, and increasing conciseness. After teachers process drafts using EditGPT, the immediately apparent needs in student writ- ing can be addressed during one-on-one conferences or small- group interventions. In addition to tools that support the traditional editing cycle, generative AI can also provide feedback on student writing in re- lation to the prompt. One example is MagicSchool.AI's (https:// magicschool.ai/) Magic Student Writing Feedback tool. To create this personalized tool, teachers give it a name and description and select the student's grade level. They can add a description of the assignment, describe or upload a rubric for scoring the writing, and even upload the assignment. Then, they share the join code with their class or add it to their Google Classroom. Students then interact with the Magic School chatbot to receive

immediate feedback on their writing. Similarly, Snorkl's (https://teacher.snorkl.app/home) Writing Tool also provides feedback on student writing. Access the tool by clicking "create an activity". Give the activity a title and select "writing" as the student response type. Next, enter the writing prompt to which your students will respond. There is also an option to upload and attach source material to the assignment. Once the initial assignment information is entered, the teacher generates the AI feedback settings. Options for this include se- lecting the subject, grade level, and answer criteria (or rubric). Once you hit "assign", a URL is generated that can be shared with students. More specifically, improving writing outcomes for students with learning disabilities is the Office of Special Education Pro- grams' (OSEP) funded Project AI SCORE (https://projectaiscore. org/). This AI-powered tool delivers immediate, meaningful, and actionable insights on content, organization, and style to both students and educators. Developed by writing experts, Project AI SCORE utilizes a library of over 100 content-neutral informative writing prompts, all scaled to a third-grade reading level. By mitigating the confounding factors of reading level and background knowledge, the tool directly assesses a stu- dent's compositional ability, rather than their reading or con- tent knowledge. Students log in, receive an informative writing prompt, and then proceed through a process that includes one minute for planning and nine minutes for writing. OSCAR, their On-Screen Composition Assistant for wRiting chatbot, provides just-in-time supports, such as sentence starters and guiding questions, throughout the nine-minute writing period. After the nine-minute write, students can immediately review the AI-pro- vided feedback. Educators also gain immediate access to these results via a data dashboard that tracks individual writing met- rics and longitudinal progress. To get access to this tool, fill out this interest form (https://forms.office.com/r/xTb145tC3E).

YouTube Video - What is AI Score https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lkEa1r_7A-4

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MagicSchool.AI - https://www.magicschool.ai/

INSTRUCTIONAL SUPPORTS TO IMPROVE WRITING To improve writing outcomes, students need both practice and feedback. This includes formal writing opportunities (e.g., sustained writing, reports, and essays) and informal free-writing tasks. Through frequent writing progress-monitoring activities, such as Project AI SCORE, teachers receive formative feedback they can analyze to identify clear patterns of strength and need. This analysis, in turn, informs targeted instructional decisions and the resulting interventions that guide students to become better writers. The Writing Classroom is a free, instructional website that provides middle- and high-school teachers with the tools to im- plement evidence- and research-based writing strategies. Rec-

ognizing that targeted intervention is key, the platform helps teachers quickly match specific student needs, whether it's de- veloping ideas, strengthening structure, or refining sentence fluency, with proven strategies. The site offers instructional vid- eos for both teachers and students, along with downloadable graphic organizers, organized intuitively by area of challenge, writing process stage, and rubric area. This organization allows teachers to use student writing data to drive precise interven- tion, focusing instruction exactly on what students need. To ensure interventions are effective and necessary, teachers must continuously monitor progress to determine whether the inter- vention is working, needs adjustment, or if the student is ready to move on. To ensure interventions remain effective and appro-

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Snorkl - https://teacher.snorkl.app/

Writing Classroom - https://www.writingclassroom.org/

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Table 1

priate, teachers should continuously monitor progress to gauge if the strategy is working, needs adjustment, or if the student is ready to move on. Students benefit from continued practice to improve their writing skills. Thus, in addition to progress-monitoring activi- ties and targeted small-group or one-on-one interventions with teachers, students need opportunities to practice their writ- ing skills. In addition to formative and summative assessment data, No Red Ink provides comprehensive, scaffolded support throughout the writing process. Students receive personalized lessons and extra practice in key skills, such as identifying claims and restructuring sentences. Since the content automatically adjusts and provides supports as needed, students get the exact challenge and targeted practice they need, when they need it. MOVING FORWARD: USING AI INTENTIONALLY TO SUPPORT WRITING Writing is a foundational academic skill, yet it remains one of the most complex and demanding tasks students are asked to perform in school, especially for students with disabilities (Gra- ham et al., 2017). As outlined throughout this article, students with disabilities often encounter barriers at multiple points in the writing process, from accessing background knowledge and generating ideas to organizing thoughts, drafting text, and re- vising their work. When these barriers go unaddressed, assign- ments often measure a student's disability rather than their un- derstanding or learning. As educators consider next steps, the most effective use of AI begins with the writing process itself. Rather than starting with a “cool” AI tool and searching for a use, teachers are encouraged, first, to identify where students struggle. It might begin by ask- ing and answering questions like, "Do students have difficulty understanding source material?" Generating ideas? Organizing information? Sustaining writing during drafting? Revising and editing independently? By using formative assessments and IEP goals as a roadmap to answer these questions, AI selection be- comes an intentional pedagogical choice, allowing teachers to target the specific barriers hindering a student’s progress. Table 1 provides a reference list for teachers considering integrating AI-supported tools into their writing instruction.

Practical Next Steps for Classroom Teachers To begin or refine the use of AI-supported tools for writing, educators may consid- er the following steps: 1. Start with student needs, not tools. Use writing data, IEP goals, and classroom observations to determine which stage of the writing process presents the most significant barrier for students. 2. Align tools to the writing process. Select AI tools that support specific phases such as activating background knowl- edge, brainstorming and planning, drafting, revising, or providing feedback, rath- er than tools that attempt to do everything at once. 3. Integrate AI as part of instruction. Model tool use, establish clear expectations, and embed AI supports within les- sons, small-group instruction, or interventions, rather than assigning them as independent or unsupervised tasks. 4. Monitor progress and adjust supports. Use student writing samples and AI-generated feedback to inform instructional decisions, adjust supports, and determine whether students are making progress toward writing goals. 5. Maintain high expectations. AI tools should reduce barriers, not lower standards. When used effectively, they allow students to focus on higher-level thinking, communication, and engage- ment in the writing process. CONCLUSION Writing will continue to play a central role in how students demonstrate learning across content areas. For students with disabilities, meaningful access to writing requires intention- al instructional design, appropriate supports, and ongoing progress monitoring. AI-supported tools, when used responsi- bly and thoughtfully, offer powerful opportunities to address long-standing barriers to writing while honoring the teacher's role as the instructional decision-maker. Rather than viewing AI as a threat to writing instruction, educators are encouraged to view it as a resource that builds upon decades of AT innovations, aligns with IEP goals and MTSS frameworks, and supports students at the points where they struggle most. When AI is aligned with the writing process and grounded in effective instruction, it not only supports students with disabilities but also offers a means towards more inclusive, engaging, and effective writing instruction for all learners. REFERENCES Bakken, R., Næss, K., Garrels, V., & Hagen, Å. (2022). Single- case writing interventions for students with disorders of intellectual development: A systematic review and meta- analysis. Education Sciences, 12(10), 687. https://doi.

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org/10.3390/educsci12100687

Creelman, K. (2021). A literature review of understanding and supporting students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in the classroom. Northwest Journal of Teacher Education, 16(1), 3. Goldman, S. R., Carreon, A., Smith, S. J., & Zimmerman, K. N. (2024). Educational technology to support written expression: A systematic literature review. Journal of Special Education Technology, 39(3), 320–338. Goldman, S. R., Carreon, A., & Smith, S. J. (2024). Aligning an editing and revising writing strategy to technology supports for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Special Education Technology, 39(4), 567–575. Graham, S., Collins, A. A., & Rigby-Wills, H. (2017). Writing characteristics of students with learning disabilities and typically achieving peers: A meta-analysis. Exceptional Children, 83(2), 199–218. Hilvert, E., Davidson, D., & Scott, C. (2019). An in-depth analysis of expository writing in children with and without autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49, 3412–3425. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10803-019-04057-2 Seyll, L., & Content, A. (2020). The impact of graphomotor demands on letter-like shapes recognition: a comparison between hampered and normal handwriting. Human Movement Science, 72. Williams, G., & Larkin, R. (2023). Translation and transcription processes in the writing skills of children with developmental language disorder. Topics in Language Disorders, 43, 283–301. https://doi.org/10.1097/ tld.0000000000000324

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