QUARTERLY BEAT
APRIL 2026
REFERENCES
• American Veterinary Medical Association. Avian influenza A (H5N1) in cats. Accessed February 12, 2026.
• Bowman A. H5N1 influenza: Who is giving what to whom? Lecture. 2024.
• Burrough ER, Magstadt DR, Petersen B, et al. Highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in domestic dairy cattle and cats, United States, 2024. Emerg Infect Dis. 2024;30(7):1335-1343. doi:10.3201/eid3007.240508
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Current situation: Bird flu in wild birds. Updated May 2, 2024. Accessed February 12, 2026.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. About pandemic influenza. Updated March 27, 2024. Accessed February 12, 2026.
• Chrzastek K, Lieber CM, Plemper RK. H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b: Evolution, global spread, and host range expansion. Pathogens . 2025;14(9):929. doi:10.3390/pathogens14090929 • Guan L, Eisfeld AJ, Pattinson D, et al. Cow’s milk containing avian influenza A(H5N1) virus—heat inactivation and infectivity in mice. N Engl J Med. 2024;391(1):87-90. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2405495 • Kandeil A, Patton C, Jones JC, et al. Rapid evolution of A(H5N1) influenza viruses after intercontinental spread to North America. Nat Commun. 2023;14(1):38415. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-38415-7
• Liu R, Sheng Z, Huang et al. Influenza D virus. Curr Opin Virol. 2020;44:154-161. doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2020.08.004
• Petersen BA. High-pathogenicity (highly pathogenic) avian influenza in cattle. Merck Veterinary Manual. Published August 2025. Accessed February 12, 2026. • Plaza PI, Gamarra-Toledo V, Euguí JR, et al. Recent changes in patterns of mammal infection with highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus worldwide. Emerg Infect Dis. 2024;30(3):e231098. doi:10.3201/eid3003.231098 • Rolfes MA, Kniss K, Kirby MK, et al. Human infections with highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) viruses in the United States from March 2024 to May 2025. Nat Med. 2025;31(11):3889-3898. doi:10.1038/s41591-025-03905-2 • Uyeki TM, Milton S, Abdul Hamid C, et al. Highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus infection in a dairy farm worker. N Engl J Med. 2024;390(21):2028-2029. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2405371 • US Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. Confirmations of highly pathogenic avian influenza in commercial and backyard flocks. Accessed February 12, 2026. • US Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. HPAI confirmed cases in livestock. Accessed February 12, 2026. • World Health Organization. Avian influenza A(H5N5)—United States of America. Disease Outbreak News. Published December 5, 2025. Accessed February 12, 2026.
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