The Complete Guide to Chain

U.S. Tsubaki, Inc., Wheeling, Illinois

First English-language edition, 1997 ISBN 0-9658932-0-0 Library of Congress 97-061464

Translated and printed with permission of Kogyo Chosakai Publishing Co., Ltd.

Distributed in North America, Australia, and Europe by U.S. Tsubaki, Inc., 301 East Marquardt Drive, Wheeling, Illinois 60090. Originally published by Kogyo Chosakai Publishing Co., Ltd., under the title: Machine Elements Manual, Chain.

Original Editor: Tsubakimoto Chain Co. Original Publisher: Sachio Shimura

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Contributors

Supervising Editor Kyosuke Otoshi Director Chain Products Division

Editor Makoto Kanehira Manager Chain Products Division Production Engineering Department Writers Makoto Kanehira Manager Chain Products Division Production Engineering Department

Tomofumi Otani Manager

Chain Products Division Engineering Department Chain Engineering Section

Masayuki Yoshikawa Manager

Chain Products Division Engineering Department Conveyor Chain Engineering Section Toshio Takahashi Manager Chain Products Division Roller Chain Production Department Engineering Plastics Manufacturing Section

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Contents

CONTRIBUTORS ................................................ii PREFACE ..................................................xiii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................xv BASICS SECTION 1. CHAIN BASICS ....................................1 1.1 WHAT IS A CHAIN? ....................................1 1.1.1 Basic Structure of Power Transmission Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.1.2 Basic Structure of Small Pitch Conveyor Chain . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.1.3 Basic Structure of Large Pitch Conveyor Chain— Engineering Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.1.4 Functions of Chain Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CHAIN FOR POWER TRANSMISSION AND CONVEYORS ..................6 1.2.1 Power Transmission Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.2.2 Conveyance Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3 SPROCKETS ........................................8 2. CHAIN DYNAMICS ................................9 2.1 CHAINS UNDER TENSION ...............................9 2.1.1 Elastic Stretch, Plastic Deformation, and Breakage . . . . . . . . . 9 2.1.2 Engagement with Sprockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.2 CHAIN DRIVE IN ACTION ...............................15 2.2.1 Chordal Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.2.2 Repeated Load Tension, Fatigue Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.2.3 Transmission Capability of Drive Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.2.3.1 Difference Between Linear Tension and Wrapping . . 19 2.2.3.2 Effect of Normal Chain Wear on Fatigue Strength . . . 20 2.2.3.3 Strength Differences Between Chain and the Connecting Links and Offset Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.2.4 Wear of Working Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.2.5 Noise and Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.3 CHARACTERISTIC PHENOMENA IN CONVEYOR CHAIN .........24 2.3.1 Coefficient of Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.3.2 Dynamic Tension of Starting and Stopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.3.3 Wear Between Rollers and Bushings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.3.4 Strength of Attachments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.3.5 Stick Slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.3.6 Relative Differences in Chain’s Total Length . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.3.7 Take-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 3. PUBLIC STANDARDS OF CHAINS ..............31 4. HOW TO SELECT CHAINS .......................32 4.1 TRANSMISSION CHAIN SELECTION .......................32 4.1.1 Chain Selection Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 4.1.2 Coefficients Used in Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 4.1.3 Drive Chain Selection (General Selection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 4.1.4 Power Transmission Chain Selection for Slow Speeds . . . . . 39 4.1.5 Hanging Transmission Chain Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 4.2 CONVEYOR CHAIN SELECTION ..........................47 4.2.1 Check of Conditions for Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4.2.2 Conveyor Type Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 4.2.3 Selection of Chain Type and Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 4.2.4 Points of Notice About Roller Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 4.2.5 Chain Pitch Decision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 4.2.6 Deciding the Number of Sprocket Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 4.2.7 Deciding the Attachment Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 4.2.8 Calculation of Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 4.2.8.1 Horizontal Conveyor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 4.2.8.2 Free Flow Conveyor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 4.2.9 Allowable Load of Roller and Standard A Attachment . . . . . 54 4.3 SELECTION EXAMPLE .................................55 5. CHAINS AND ENVIRONMENTS .................57 5.1 STEEL CHAINS ......................................57 5.1.1 Use of Steel Chains in High Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 5.1.2 Use of Steel Chains in Low Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 5.2 ENGINEERED PLASTIC CHAIN IN HIGH AND LOW TEMPERATURES . 58 5.3 OTHER CHAIN MATERIALS IN HIGH TEMPERATURES ...........59 5.4 COPING WITH SPECIAL CONDITIONS ......................59 5.4.1 Use in Wet Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 5.4.2 Use in Acidic, Alkaline, or Electrolytic Conditions . . . . . . . . 60 5.4.3 Use in Abrasive Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

6. BASIC LAYOUTS ..................................63 6.1 BASIC LAYOUTS OF WRAPPING TRANSMISSION CHAINS . . . . . . . 63 6.1.1 General Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 6.1.2 Special Layouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 6.1.3 Special Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 6.2 BASIC CONVEYOR CHAIN LAYOUTS .......................65 6.2.1 Horizontal Conveyor Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 6.2.2 Vertical Conveyor Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 6.2.3 Inclined Conveyor Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 6.2.4 Horizontal Circulating Conveyor Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . 67 6.3 SUPPORTING THE ROLLER OF A CONVEYOR CHAIN ...........67 7. MANIPULATION OF CHAINS ....................69 7.1 TRANSMISSION CHAINS, SMALL PITCH CONVEYOR CHAINS . . . . 69 7.1.1 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 7.1.2 Installation Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 7.1.2.1 Chain Slack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 7.1.2.2 Horizontal Precision and Parallelism of the Shafts . . 71 7.1.3 Start-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 7.1.3.1 Prestart-Up Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 7.1.3.2 Start-Up Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 7.1.4 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 7.1.5 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 7.1.6 Troubleshooting and Problem-Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 7.2 LARGE PITCH CONVEYOR CHAINS ........................79 7.2.1 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 7.2.2 Installation Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 7.2.2.1 Chain Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 7.2.2.2 Horizontal Precision and Parallelism of the Shafts . . 80 7.2.2.3 Accuracy of the Rails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 7.2.3 Start-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 7.2.4 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 7.2.5 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 7.2.6 Troubleshooting and Problem-Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

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APPLICATIONS SECTION 1. TRANSMISSION CHAINS ........................85 1.1 STANDARD ROLLER CHAINS ............................86 1.1.1 ANSI Roller Chains (RS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 1.1.2 BS/DIN Roller Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 1.2 HIGH PERFORMANCE CHAINS ...........................88 1.2.1 Super Roller Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 1.2.2 Super-H Roller Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 1.2.3 RS-HT Roller Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 1.2.4 Ultra Super Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 1.3 LUBE-FREE CHAINS ...................................94 1.3.1 LAMBDA ® Roller Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 1.3.2 Sealed Roller Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 1.4 ENVIRONMENTALLY RESISTANT CHAINS ...................98 1.4.1 Nickel-Plated Roller Chain (NP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 1.4.2 WP ® Roller Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 1.4.3 Stainless Steel Roller Chain (SS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 1.4.4 Poly-Steel Chain (PC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 1.5 SPECIALTY CHAINS, TYPE 1 ............................109 1.5.1 Bicycle Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 1.5.2 Motorcycle Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 1.5.3 Chains for Automotive Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 1.6 SPECIALTY CHAINS, TYPE 2 ............................117 1.6.1 Miniature Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 1.6.2 Leaf Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 1.6.3 Inverted Tooth Chain (Silent Chain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 2. SMALL PITCH CONVEYOR CHAINS ...........124 2.1 SMALL PITCH CONVEYOR CHAINS FOR GENERAL USE ........126 2.1.1 RS Attachment Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 2.1.2 Double Pitch Roller Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 2.1.3 Plastic Roller Plus Plastic Sleeve Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 2.1.4 Hollow Pin Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 2.2 SPECIALTY CHAINS ..................................134 2.2.1 Step (Escalator) Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 2.2.2 ATC Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

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2.3 STANDARD ATTACHMENTS ............................139 2.3.1 A Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 2.3.2 K Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 2.3.3 SA Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 2.3.4 SK Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 2.3.5 D Attachment (Extended Pin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 2.4 PLUS α ALPHA ATTACHMENTS .........................144 2.5 SPECIAL ATTACHMENTS ..............................146 3. PRECISION CONVEYOR CHAINS ..............149 3.1 BEARING BUSH CHAIN ...............................150 3.2 INDEXING TABLE CHAIN ..............................153 4. TOP CHAINS ....................................154 4.1 WHAT IS TOP CHAIN? ................................155 4.1.1 Plastic Materials for Top Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 4.1.2 Guide Rail Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 4.1.3 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 4.1.4 Various Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 4.2 TYPES OF TOP CHAIN ................................158 4.2.1 TTP Top Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 4.2.2 TP Top Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 4.2.3 TTUP Top Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 4.2.4 TPU Top Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 4.2.5 TT Top Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 4.2.6 TS Top Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 4.2.7 TTU Top Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 4.2.8 TO Crescent Top Plate Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 4.2.9 TN Snap-On Top Plate Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 4.2.10 RS Plastic Top Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 4.2.11 Bel-Top Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 5. FREE FLOW CHAINS ...........................177 5.1 WHAT IS FREE FLOW CHAIN? ...........................178 5.2 TYPES OF FREE FLOW CHAIN ...........................179 5.2.1 DOUBLE PLUS ® Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 5.2.2 Outboard Roller Chain—Side Roller Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 5.2.3 Outboard Roller Chain—Top Roller Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 5.2.4 Roller Table Chain (ST, RT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

6. LARGE PITCH CONVEYOR CHAINS ...........192 6.1 WHAT IS LARGE PITCH CONVEYOR CHAIN? ................193 6.1.1 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 6.1.2 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 6.1.3 Construction and Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 6.1.3.1 Shape Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 6.1.3.2 Function Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 6.1.3.3 Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 6.2 STANDARD CONVEYOR CHAINS ........................198 6.2.1 RF Conveyor Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 6.2.2 RF Bearing Roller Conveyor Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 6.2.3 RF Plastic Roller Plus Plastic Sleeve Conveyor Chain . . . . . . 204 6.3 SPECIALTY CONVEYOR CHAINS .........................205 6.3.1 Bucket Elevator Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 6.3.2 Flow Conveyor Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 6.3.3 Parking Tower Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 6.3.4 Continuous Bucket Unloader Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 6.3.5 Large Bulk Handling Conveyor Chain (CT) . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 6.3.6 Block Chain (Bar and Pin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 6.3.7 Sewage Treatment Chain (Rectangular Sludge Collector) . . . 220 6.3.8 Sewage Treatment Chain (Bar Screen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 6.4 STANDARD ATTACHMENTS ............................228 6.5 PLUS α ALPHA ATTACHMENTS .........................229 6.6 SPECIAL ATTACHMENTS ..............................233

BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................234 AFTERWORD ...............................................239

COFFEE BREAKS Roller Chain Manufacturing Process .........................191 A Brief History of Chain ..................................211 The Tools Developed from Chain ............................235 Sizing Up Chain ......................................236 Speed Variation ......................................237

Preface When most people hear the word “chain,” they imagine a short-link chain, which consists of connected metal rings, or the type of chain used on a motor- cycle or bicycle. However, chains of every size and description are used in factories, even though they are rarely seen in daily life. In fact, most people probably don’t notice that chain is being used all around them, in parking ele- vators or escalators, for example. Steel roller chain, which is the ultimate in chain design, and constitutes the majority of chain produced today, is a relatively new invention. Its history is only about 100 years old. It is newer as a machine part than gears and belts. In Japan, the first chain was imported with bicycles during the Meiji-period (1867~1912 A.D.). Domestic production started when the supply from the United States and European countries was stopped during World War I. There are two functions of chain: power transmission and conveyance. For transmission roller chains, Japanese chain makers gradually changed the prior- ity of production from bicycle chain to industrial chain. After World War II, these chains challenged the advanced chain from the United States and Europe. Now they have achieved the highest levels in the world for both qual- ity and quantity. This holds true for conveyor chain, as well. The industries that are the main users of the chain, including automobile, electronics, steel, chemical, environmental, food, bicycle, and motorcycle industries, have developed new technologies and production methods that require various high performance chain. These industries are looking for improvement in tensile strength, fatigue strength, abrasion resistance, environ- mental resistance, and efficiency, as well as perfection of maintenance-free chain products. To satisfy these many requirements, chain makers are making every effort to improve chain’s basic performance step by step. In addition, new chain technologies, including rolling bearing systems, super engineered plastic, and free flow chains, are being developed. Because of these two fac- tors, chains with special characteristics are now being produced. During his lifetime of experience, the editor of this book has helped to develop most of these new types of chain. He has also acquired a great deal of practical knowledge through his contacts with end users. Accordingly, this comprehensive book explains the points that readers may want to know, including the most important point: determining the quality of the chain. I hope this book can always be with you when you use chains. I’m afraid some of the descriptions in this book may be either inadequate or hard to understand; therefore, I hope that readers will point out any mistakes and send me their comments and input. Furthermore, because this book is

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based on a lot of technical data and specialized books, I would like to extend many thanks to them all. I also thank Mr. Seihin Shibuya, vice-director of Kogyo Chosakai Publishing Co., Ltd., for his whole-hearted efforts in publish- ing this book.

March 1995

Kyosuke Otoshi Director, Chain Products Division Tsubakimoto Chain Co.

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Acknowledgments The following people contributed considerable time, talent, and energy to ensure the accurate translation and timely publication of The Complete Guide to Chain .

Toshiharu Yamamoto Quality Manager Product Engineering Roller Chain Division U.S. Tsubaki, Inc.

David Doray Director Corporate Marketing Department U.S. Tsubaki, Inc. Lee Marcus Marketing Communications Specialist Corporate Marketing Department U.S. Tsubaki, Inc.

Jack Kane Manager Customer Service and Materials Roller Chain Division U.S. Tsubaki, Inc.

James Lamoureux Design & Application Engineer

Leszek Wawer Senior Design & Application Engineer

Product Engineering Roller Chain Division U.S. Tsubaki, Inc.

Product Engineering Atlanta Service Center U.S. Tsubaki, Inc.

Mokoto Kameda Project Administrator Customer Service and Materials Roller Chain Division U.S. Tsubaki, Inc. Katsuya Matsuda Coordinator Strategic Business Development Department U.S. Tsubaki, Inc.

Editorial services provided by Drake Creative, Inc., Chicago, IL Design services provided by Toomey Associates, Ltd., Hinsdale, IL

1. CHAIN BASICS

1.1 WHAT IS A CHAIN? A chain is a reliable machine component, which transmits power by means of tensile forces, and is used primarily for power transmission and conveyance systems. The function and uses of chain are similar to a belt. There are many kinds of chain. It is convenient to sort types of chain by either material of composition or method of construction. We can sort chains into five types:

1. Cast iron chain. 2. Cast steel chain. 3. Forged chain. 4. Steel chain. 5. Plastic chain.

Demand for the first three chain types is now decreasing; they are only used in some special situations. For example, cast iron chain is part of water-treat- ment equipment; forged chain is used in overhead conveyors for automobile factories. In this book, we are going to focus on the latter two: “steel chain,” especial- ly the type called “roller chain,” which makes up the largest share of chains being produced, and “plastic chain.” For the most part, we will refer to “roller chain” simply as “chain.” NOTE: Roller chain is a chain that has an inner plate, outer plate, pin, bushing, and roller. In the following section of this book, we will sort chains according to their uses, which can be broadly divided into six types:

1. Power transmission chain. 2. Small pitch conveyor chain. 3. Precision conveyor chain. 4. Top chain. 5. Free flow chain. 6. Large pitch conveyor chain.

The first one is used for power transmission, the other five are used for con- veyance. In the Applications Section of this book, we will describe the uses and features of each chain type by following the above classification. In the following section, we will explain the composition of power trans- mission chain, small pitch chain, and large pitch conveyor chain. Because there are special features in the composition of precision conveyor chain, top chain, and free flow chain, check the appropriate pages in the Applications Section about these features.

Basics 1.1.1 Basic Structure of Power Transmission Chain A typical configuration for RS60-type chain is shown in Figure 1.1.

Press Fit

Slip Fit

Roller

Bushing

Press Fit

Roller Link Plate

Slip Fit

Pin Link Plate

Connecting Link Plate

Spring Clip

Offset Pin Cotter Pin

Figure 1.1 The Basic Components of Transmission Chain

Connecting Link This is the ordinary type of connecting link. The pin and link plate are slip fit in the connecting link for ease of assembly. This type of connecting link is 20 percent lower in fatigue strength than the chain itself. There are also some special connecting links which have the same strength as the chain itself. (See Figure 1.2.) Tap Fit Connecting Link In this link, the pin and the tap fit connecting link plate are press fit. It has fatigue strength almost equal to that of the chain itself. (See Figure 1.2.) Offset Link An offset link is used when an odd number of chain links is required. It is 35 percent lower in fatigue strength than the chain itself. The pin and two plates are slip fit. There is also a two-pitch offset link available that has a fatigue strength as great as the chain itself. (See Figure 1.3.)

1. Chain Basics

Pin Link Plate

Cotter Pin

Spring Clip

Connecting Link Plate

Cotter Connecting Link

Spring Clip Connecting Link

Pin Link Plate

Spring Clip Tap Fit Connecting Link Plate

Cotter Pin

Spring Clip Connecting Link

Cotter Connecting Link

Figure 1.2 Standard Connecting Link (top) and Tap Fit Connecting Link (bottom)

Offset Link Plate

Offset Pin

Cotter Pin

Figure 1.3 Offset Link

Basics

1.1.2 Basic Structure of Small Pitch Conveyor Chain The basic structure is the same as that of power transmission chain. Figure 1.4 shows a single pitch conveyor chain. The double pitch type in Figure 1.5 has an outer plate and an inner plate of the same height, but often has a roller with a larger diameter. Usually, an attachment is used with this chain.

Figure 1.4 Single Pitch Conveyor Chain with K-1 Attachment

Attachment Pin Link Plate

Attachment Roller Link Plate

Roller

Connecting Link Plate

Roller Link Plate

Pin Link Plate

Bushing

Cotter Pin

Figure 1.5 Basic Structure of Double Pitch Conveyor Chain with A-2 Attachment

1.1.3 Basic Structure of Large Pitch Conveyor Chain—Engineering Class Large pitch conveyor chain has the same basic structure as double pitch con- veyor chain (Figure 1.5), but there are some differences. Large pitch conveyor chain (Figure 1.6) has a headed pin, sometimes a flanged roller (F-roller), and usually does not use a riveted pin. Large pitch conveyor chain is also called engineering class chain.

1.1.4 Functions of Chain Parts Plate

The plate is the component that bears the tension placed on the chain. Usually this is a repeated loading, sometimes accompanied by shock. Therefore, the plate must have not only great static tensile strength, but also must hold up to the dynamic forces of load and shock. Furthermore, the plate must meet environmental resistance requirements (for example, corrosion, abrasion, etc.).

1. Chain Basics

Attachment

Pin Pin Link Plate

Press Fit

Slip Fit

Pin Link

Press Fit

Bushing

Roller Link

Press Fit

Pin Link

Slip Fit

T-Pin

Roller Link

Pin Link Plate (Flat Hole)

Roller Link Plate

Press Fit

Figure 1.6 Basic Structure of Large Pitch Conveyor Chain

Pin The pin is subject to shearing and bending forces transmitted by the plate. At the same time, it forms a load-bearing part, together with the bushing, when the chain flexes during sprocket engagement. Therefore, the pin needs high tensile and shear strength, resistance to bending, and also must have sufficient endurance against shock and wear. Bushing The bushing is subject to shearing and bending stresses transmitted by the plate and roller, and also gets shock loads when the chain engages the sprocket. In addition, when the chain articulates, the inner surface forms a load-bear- ing part together with the pin. The outer surface also forms a load-bearing part with the roller’s inner surface when the roller rotates on the rail or engages the sprocket. Therefore, it must have great tensile strength against shearing and be resistant to dynamic shock and wear. Roller The roller is subject to impact load as it strikes the sprocket teeth during the chain engagement with the sprocket. After engagement, the roller changes its point of contact and balance. It is held between the sprocket teeth and bush- ing, and moves on the tooth face while receiving a compression load.

Basics

Furthermore, the roller’s inner surface constitutes a bearing part together with the bushing’s outer surface when the roller rotates on the rail. Therefore, it must be resistant to wear and still have strength against shock, fatigue, and compression. Cotter Pin, Spring Clip, T-Pin These are the parts that prevent the outer plate from falling off the pin at the point of connection. They may wear out during high-speed operation, there- fore, for this application, these parts require heat treatment.

1.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CHAIN FOR POWER TRANSMISSION AND CONVEYORS

1.2.1 Power Transmission Uses Power transmission machines use either chains, gears, or belts. Table 1.1 provides a comparison of typical applications. Usually, chain is an economical part of power transmission machines for low speeds and large loads. However, it is also possible to use chain in high- speed conditions like automobile engine camshaft drives. This is accomplished by devising a method of operation and lubrication. Basically, there are lower limits of fatigue strength in the gear and the chain, but not in the belt. Furthermore, if a gear tooth breaks, the gear will stop at the next tooth. Therefore, the order is gear > chain > belt in the aspect of reli- ability. In most cases: (1) An increase in gear noise indicates that the end of the service life is near. (2) You will know that the chain is almost at the end of its life by wear elongation or an increase in vibration caused by wear elongation. (3) It is difficult to detect toothed-belt life without stopping the machine and inspecting the belt carefully. It is possible to decrease gear noise by adjusting the gears precisely or by adapting the drive to a helical or double helical gear. Both of these are expen- sive, and thrust load may occur with the use of helical gears. Chain is more suitable to long-term continuous running and power trans- mission with limited torque fluctuation. Gears are more fit to reversing or intermittent drives. The greater the shaft center distance, the more practical the use of chain and belt, rather than gears.

1. Chain Basics

Table 1.1 Comparison Table Type

Roller Chain

Tooth Belt

V Belt

Spur Gear

Sychronization Transmission Efficiency Anti-Shock Noise/Vibration Surrounding Condition

Avoid Water, Dust

Avoid Heat, Oil, Water, Dust Avoid Heat, Oil, Water, Dust

Avoid Water, Dust

High Speed Low Load Low Speed High Load Compact

Space Saving

Heavy Pulley

Wider Pulley

Less Durability Due to Less Engagement

Lubrication

Required

No Lube

Required

Layout Flexibilty Excess Load onto Bearing

Excellent

Good

Fair

Poor

Generally, under the same transmission conditions, the cost of toothed belts and pulleys is much higher than the cost of chains and sprockets. See the following features and points of notice about roller chain transmission. Features of Chain Drives: 1.Speed reduction/increase of up to seven to one can be easily accommodated. 2.Chain can accommodate long shaft-center distances (less than 4 m), and is more versatile. 3.It is possible to use chain with multiple shafts or drives with both sides of the chain. 4.Standardization of chains under the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), the International Standardization Organization (ISO), and the Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) allow ease of selection. 5.It is easy to cut and connect chains. 6.The sprocket diameter for a chain system may be smaller than a belt pulley, while transmitting the same torque. 7.Sprockets are subject to less wear than gears because sprockets distribute the loading over their many teeth. Points of Notice: 1.Chain has a speed variation, called chordal action, which is caused by the polygonal effect of the sprockets. 2.Chain needs lubrication. 3.Chain wears and elongates. 4.Chain is weak when subjected to loads from the side. It needs proper alignment. 7

Basics

1.2.2 Conveyance Uses Conveyor systems use either chains, belts, or rollers, depending on the application. The general guidelines for suitability are shown in Table 1.2, and discussed in Basics Section 1.2.1. Belt conveyors are most suitable for large-volume movement of bulk materi- als. Except for this situation, chains, belts, and rollers are generally difficult to compare in terms of capacity, speed, or distance of conveyance of unit materials. NOTE: In this discussion, bulk materials refer to items like grain or cement that may shift during conveyance. Unit materials, such as automobiles or cardboard, are stable when conveyed.

Table 1.2

Conveyor Type Bulk Handling Unit Handling

Chain

Belt

Roller

Only for light conveyor

Dust in Conveying Bulky Goods

( for closed conveyor)

——

Space Required

Small

Large

Excellent

Good

Poor

1.3 SPROCKETS The chain converts rotational power to pulling power, or pulling power to rotational power, by engaging with the sprocket. The sprocket looks like a gear but differs in three important ways: 1. Sprockets have many engaging teeth; gears usually have only one or two. 2. The teeth of a gear touch and slip against each other; there is basically no slippage in a sprocket. 3. The shape of the teeth are different in gears and sprockets.

Figure 1.7 Types of Sprockets

2. CHAIN DYNAMICS

A study of phenomena that occur during chain use.

2.1 CHAINS UNDER TENSION A chain can transmit tension, but usually cannot transmit pushing forces. There are actually a few special chains that can push, but this discussion focuses on tension. In the following section we will explain how the chain acts under tension.

2.1.1 Elastic Stretch, Plastic Deformation, and Breakage Tensile Strength

How will the chain behave when it is subjected to tensile loading? There is a standardized test to determine the tensile strength of a chain. Here’s how it works: The manufacturer takes a new, five-link-or-longer power transmis- sion chain and firmly affixes both ends to the jigs (Figure 2.1). Now a load or tension is applied and measurements are taken until the chain breaks (JIS B 1801-1990). Chain Elongation As a chain is subjected to increasing stress or load, it becomes longer. This relationship can be graphed (Figure 2.2). The vertical axis shows increas- ing stress or load, and the horizontal axis shows increasing strain or elonga- tion. In this stress-strain graph, each point represents the following: O-A: elastic region A: limit of proportionality for chains; there is not an obvious declining point, as in mild steel A-C: plastic deformation B: maximum tension point C: actual breakage

Elongation

Figure 2.2 Stress-Strain Graph

Figure 2.1 Typical Chain in Tensile Test

Basics

JIS Tensile Strength

Min. Tensile Strength

Avg.Tensile Strength

Tensile Strength

Figure 2.3 Tensile Strength

Reporting Tensile Strength Point B, shown in Figure 2.2, the maximum tension point, is also called the ultimate tensile strength. In some cases, point B will come at the same time as point C. After breaking a number of chains, a tensile strength graph shows a normal distribution (Figure 2.3). The average load in Figure 2.3 is called the average tensile strength, and the lowest value, which is determined after statistically examining the results, is called the minimum tensile strength. JIS (Japanese Industrial Standard) also regulates minimum tensile strength, but it is much lower than any manufactur- er’s tensile strength listed in their catalogs. “Maximum allowable load,” shown in some manufacturer’s catalogs, is based on the fatigue limit (see Basics Section 2.2.2). This value is much lower than point A. Furthermore, in the case of power transmission chain, point A is usually 70 percent of the ultimate tensile strength (point B). If the chain receives greater tension than point A, plastic deformation will occur, and the chain will be nonfunctional. Using Tensile Strength Information For the sake of safety, you should never subject chains to tension greater than half the average tensile strength— not even once. If the chain is inadver- tently loaded that high, you should change the whole chain set. If the chain is repeatedly subjected to loads greater than the maximum allowable load, fatigue failure may result. When you see tensile strength graphs or stress-strain graphs, you should be aware of the following facts: 1. Every manufacturer shows the average tensile strength in its catalog, but it is not unusual to find that the value listed may have been developed with sales in mind. Therefore, when comparing chains from different manufacturers, check the minimum tensile strength.

2. Chain Dynamics

2. In addition to the tensile strength, the most important fact about a stress- strain graph is the value of stretch at the time of breakage. If the chain’s tensile strength is higher and the capacity to stretch is greater, the chain can absorb more energy before it breaks. This means the chain won’t be easily broken even if it receives unexpected shock load. (In Figure 2.2, the cross-hatched area is the value of energy that the chain can absorb before it breaks.) Elastic Elongation Another important characteristic in practice is how much elastic elongation the chain will undergo when it is subjected to tension. When you use chains for elevators on stage, if there is a difference between the stage floor and the elevator platform, the dancers will trip on it. In an elevator parking garage, it is necessary to lower cars down to the entrance within a small difference in the level. Therefore, it is important to anticipate how long the chain’s elastic stretch will be. Figure 2.4 shows elasticity/stretch for power transmission roller chains. Please contact the individual manufacturers about small and large pitch con- veyor chains.

Max. Allowable Load

Elongation (mm/m)

Figure 2.4 Elastic Elongation on Roller Chain

Basics

2.1.2 Engagement with Sprockets Although chains are sometimes pushed and pulled at either end by cylin- ders, chains are usually driven by wrapping them on sprockets. In the follow- ing section, we explain the relation between sprockets and chains when power is transmitted by sprockets. 1. Back tension First, let us explain the relationship between flat belts and pulleys. Figure 2.5 shows a rendition of a flat belt drive. The circle at the top is a pulley, and the belt hangs down from each side. When the pulley is fixed and the left side of the belt is loaded with tension ( T 0 ), the force needed to pull the belt down to the right side will be:

µ u

T 1 = T 0 3 e

For example, T 0 = 100 N: the coefficient of friction between the belt and pulley, µ = 0.3; the wrap angle u = π (180˚).

T 1 = T 0 3 2.566 = 256.6 N

In brief, when you use a flat belt in this situation, you can get 256.6 N of drive power only when there is 100 N of back tension. For elements without teeth such as flat belts or ropes, the way to get more drive power is to increase the coefficient of friction or wrapping angle. If a substance, like grease or oil, which decreases the coefficient of friction, gets onto the contact surface, the belt cannot deliver the required tension. In the chain’s case, sprocket teeth hold the chain roller. If the sprocket tooth configuration is square, as in Figure 2.6, the direction of the tooth’s reactive force is opposite the chain’s tension, and only one tooth will receive all the chain’s tension. Therefore, the chain will work without back tension.

Roller

Tooth Force

Chain Roller

T 0

T 1

Figure 2.5 Flat Belt Drive

Figure 2.6 Simplified Roller/Tooth Forces

2. Chain Dynamics

Tooth Force

Pressure Angle

Chain Tension

Link Tension

Frictional Tooth Force

Figure 2.7 The Balance of Forces Around the Roller

But actually, sprocket teeth need some inclination so that the teeth can engage and slip off of the roller. The balance of forces that exist around the roller are shown in Figure 2.7, and it is easy to calculate the required back tension. For example, assume a coefficient of friction µ = 0, and you can calculate the back tension (T k ) that is needed at sprocket tooth number k with this for- mula: T k = T 0 3 sin ø k-1 sin( ø + 2 b ) Where: T k = back tension at tooth k T 0 = chain tension ø = sprocket minimum pressure angle 17 – 64/N(˚) N = number of teeth 2 b = sprocket tooth angle (360/N) k = the number of engaged teeth (angle of wrap 3 N/360); round down to the nearest whole number to be safe By this formula, if the chain is wrapped halfway around the sprocket, the back tension at sprocket tooth number six is only 0.96 N. This is 1 percent of the amount of a flat belt. Using chains and sprockets, the required back tension is much lower than a flat belt. Now let’s compare chains and sprockets with a toothed-belt back tension. Although in toothed belts the allowable tension can differ with the number of pulley teeth and the revolutions per minute (rpm), the general recommen- dation is to use 1/3.5 of the allowable tension as the back tension (F). This is shown in Figure 2.8. Therefore, our 257 N force will require 257/3.5 = 73 N of back tension. Both toothed belts and chains engage by means of teeth, but chain’s back tension is only 1/75 that of toothed belts. { }

Basics

Figure 2.8 Back Tension on a Toothed Belt

2. Chain wear and jumping sprocket teeth The key factor causing chain to jump sprocket teeth is chain wear elongation (see Basics Section 2.2.4). Because of wear elongation, the chain creeps up on the sprocket teeth until it starts jumping sprocket teeth and can no longer engage with the sprocket. Figure 2.9 shows sprocket tooth shape and posi- tions of engagement. Figure 2.10 shows the engagement of a sprocket with an elongated chain. In Figure 2.9 there are three sections on the sprocket tooth face: a: Bottom curve of tooth, where the roller falls into place; b: Working curve, where the roller and the sprocket are working together; c: Where the tooth can guide the roller but can’t transmit tension. If the roller, which should transmit tension, only engages with C, it causes jumped sprocket teeth. The chain’s wear elongation limit varies according to the number of sprocket teeth and their shape, as shown in Figure 2.11. Upon calculation, we see that sprockets with large numbers of teeth are very limited in stretch percentage. Smaller sprockets are limited by other harmful effects, such as high vibration and decreasing strength; therefore, in the case of less than 60 teeth, the stretch limit ratio is limited to 1.5 percent (in transmission chain).

Figure 2.10 The Engagement Between a Sprocket and an Elongated Chain

Figure 2.9 Sprocket Tooth Shape and Positions of Engagement

2. Chain Dynamics

Number of Teeth in Sprocket

Figure 2.11 Elongation Versus the Number of Sprocket Teeth

In conveyor chains, in which the number of working teeth in sprockets is less than transmission chains, the stretch ratio is limited to 2 percent. Large pitch conveyor chains use a straight line in place of curve B in the sprocket tooth face. 2.2 CHAIN DRIVE IN ACTION Let’s study the case of an endless chain rotating on two sprockets (Figure 2.12).

Figure 2.12 An Endless Chain Rotating Around Two Sprockets

2.2.1 Chordal Action You will find that the position in which the chain and the sprockets engage fluctuates, and the chain vibrates along with this fluctuation. Even with the same chain, if you increase the number of teeth in the sprockets (change to larger diameter), vibration will be reduced. Decrease the number of teeth in the sprockets and vibration will increase. This is because there is a pitch length in chains, and they can only bend at the pitch point. In Figure 2.13, the height of engagement (the radius from the center of the sprocket) differs when the chain engages in a tangent position and when it engages in a chord.

Basics

Maximum Chain Speed V max =R v

Minimum Chain Speed V min = r v

Chordal Rise

Figure 2.13 The Height of Engagement

Therefore, even when the sprockets rotate at the same speed, the chain speed is not steady according to a ratio of the sprocket radius (with chordal action). Chordal action is based on the number of teeth in the sprockets:

Ratio of speed change = (V max – V min ) / V max = 1 – cos (180˚/N)

Figure 2.14 shows the result. In addition to the number of teeth, if the shaft center distance is a common multiple of the chain pitch, chordal action is small. On the other hand, if shaft center distance is a multiple of chain pitch + 0.5 pitch, chordal action increases. Manufacturing and alignment errors can also impact chordal action. In a flat-belt power transmission machine, if the thickness and bending elas- ticity of the belt are regular, there is no chordal action. But in toothed-belt sys- tems, chordal action occurs by circle and chord, the same as chains. Generally this effect is less than 0.6 percent, but when combined with the deflection of the pulley center and errors of belt pitch or pulley pitch, it can amount to 2 to 3 percent.

V max – V min V max

Number of Teeth in Sprocket

Figure 2.14 Speed Variation Versus the Number of Sprocket Teeth

2. Chain Dynamics

2.2.2 Repeated Load Tension, Fatigue Failure In Basics Section 2.2.1, we looked at the case of rotating chains without load. In this section, we’ll examine rotating chains with load, a typical use of chains. In Figure 2.15, the left sprocket is the driving side (power input) and the right sprocket is the driven side (power output). If we apply counterclockwise rotation power to the driving sprocket while adding resistance to the driven sprocket, then the chain is loaded in tension mainly at the D~A span, and ten- sion is smaller in the other parts. Figure 2.16 shows this relation.

Figure 2.15 ATypical Chain Drive with the Driving Side on the Left

Time

Figure 2.16 Chain Load with the Addition of Resistance

Chains in most applications are typically loaded by cyclical tension. Chain fatigue is tested under pulsating tension via a fixture. The fatigue limit will occur between 10 6 to 10 7 times. Figure 2.17 shows the concept of repeated load tension, where P a represents the amplitude. NOTE: If the minimum force is zero, the chain is free to move during testing. Therefore, JIS provides P min =P max 3 1/11, as in Figure 2.17. When a chain that is more than five links and of linear configuration receives

repeated load, it can be shown as a solid line (as in Figure 2.17). JIS B 1801-1990 defines the breakage load in 5 3 10 6 times:

P max = P m + P a = 2.2 P a

Basics

Time

Figure 2.17 Repeated Load Tension

as the maximum allowable load. Figure 2.18 shows one result of fatigue exam- ination in this way. In the figure, the vertical axis is P max and the horizontal axis is the number of repetitions. When the repetitions are less than 10 4 times, the test results fluctuate greatly. Therefore, these figures are practically useless, and are not shown here. In the previous paragraph, we need to be alert to what the JIS regulation is really saying: “JIS B 1801-1990 defines...P max = 2.2 P a as the maximum allow- able load.” This is set up with wrapping transmission as a model (as shown in Figure 2.15), and with the supposition that the smaller load side tension is 10 percent of the larger load side tension. In actual practice, even if we use wrapping transmission, the smaller load side tension may be almost zero; and in the case of hanging or lifting, the chain’s slack side also doesn’t receive any load. In these cases, the conditions can be shown as a dotted line (Figure 2.17); chain load = 2 P a' and P min = 0; therefore 2P a' < P max .

Range with Failure

Tensile Strength

Endurance Limit Range without Failure

Cycles

Figure 2.18 Fatigue Strength

2. Chain Dynamics

If you follow the JIS definition of P max as maximum allowable load and you choose a chain on the higher limits of the scale, the chain might not stand up to those strength requirements. In some situations a fatigue failure might occur even though it met the JIS requirement for maximum allowable load. This is the reason that some manufacturers, such as Tsubaki, use 2P a as the maximum allowable load; or some manufacturers calculate 2P a under the situation of P min = 0 and show this in their catalog. In the latter method, the 2P a' value is larger than the value of the former method. The maximum allowable load value of the JIS method is 10 percent greater than the former method of 2P a . In addition, some manufacturers, including Tsubaki, establish a fatigue limit for strength at 10 7 cycles. JIS sets a fatigue strength at 5 3 10 6 cycles. Including the JIS scale, there are more than three ways of expressing the same information in manufacturers’ catalogs. Therefore, you should not make a final determination about a chain’s functions simply by depending on infor- mation found in different catalogs. Consider a manufacturer’s reliability by checking whether they have their own fatigue-testing equipment. Ask if they show fatigue limit data in their catalogs. The quality guarantee system of ISO 9000 series is checked by third parties (instead of users) to gauge whether or not their system of quality guarantee is adequate. It would be safe to choose manufacturers who are ISO-9000-series certified. 2.2.3 Transmission Capability of Drive Chains We have derived fatigue limits by testing. But just as you can’t judge a per- son by examination alone, so we must also check whether the results of our tests can be put to practical use. Some questions remain: 1. The chain’s fatigue limit (see Basics Section 2.2.2) is tested in a linear configuration (Figure 2.1). But in wrapping transmission, the chain is engaging with the sprocket. Is there any difference between these two? 2. A new roller chain is used. Is there any decrease in the strength of a used chain? 3. Do connecting links or offset links have the same strength? To answer these questions, a number of experiments and investigations were done. The following are the findings. 2.2.3.1 Difference Between Linear Tension and Wrapping When the chain engages the sprocket, the chain collides with the sprocket tooth surfaces. The transmission capability is limited by the roller or bushing breakage during collision.

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