ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering
pubs.acs.org/journal/ascecg
Research Article
■ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to thank Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP) for funding DFS. ■ ABBREVIATIONS EFB, empty fruit bunch; PM, particulate matter; HVAC, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning; LCA, lifecycle assessment; GWP, global warming potential; HH, human health; EQ, ecosystem quality; RS, resources scarcity; QF, quality factor ■ REFERENCES (1) Xu, H.; Jia, Y.; Sun, Z.; Su, J.; Liu, Q. S.; Zhou, Q.; Jiang, G. Environmental Pollution, a Hidden Culprit for Health Issues. Eco- Environ. Health. 2022 , 1 (1), 31 − 45. (2) Dominici, F.; Greenstone, M.; Sunstein, C. R. Particulate Matter Matters. Science 2014 , 344 (6181), 257 − 259. (3) Jeong, S.; Cho, H.; Han, S.; Won, P.; Lee, H.; Hong, S.; Yeo, J.; Kwon, J.; Ko, S. H. High Efficiency, Transparent, Reusable, and Active PM2.5 Filters by Hierarchical Ag Nanowire Percolation Network. Nano Lett. 2017 , 17 (7), 4339 − 4346. (4) Atalie, D.; Chen, Z.-X.; Li, H.; Liang, C.-G.; Gao, M.-C.; Cheng, X.-X.; Ma, P.-C. Eco-Friendly and Highly Efficient PM0.3 Air Filter Made from Nonwoven Basalt Fiber and Electrospun Nanocellulose Fiber. J. Hazard. Mater. 2024 , 478 , 135608. (5) De Jesus, A. L.; Rahman, M. M.; Mazaheri, M.; Thompson, H.; Knibbs, L. D.; Jeong, C.; Evans, G.; Nei, W.; Ding, A.; Qiao, L.; Li, L.; Portin, H.; Niemi, J. V.; Timonen, H.; Luoma, K.; Petäjä, T.; Kulmala, M.; Kowalski, M.; Peters, A.; Cyrys, J.; Ferrero, L.; Manigrasso, M.; Avino, P.; Buonano, G.; Reche, C.; Querol, X.; Beddows, D.; Harrison, R. M.; Sowlat, M. H.; Sioutas, C.; Morawska, L. Ultrafine Particles and PM2.5 in the Air of Cities around the World: Are They Representative of Each Other? Environ. Int. 2019 , 129 , 118 − 135. (6) McDuffie, E. E.; Martin, R. V.; Spadaro, J. V.; Burnett, R.; Smith, S. J.; O’Rourke, P.; Hammer, M. S.; Van Donkelaar, A.; Bindle, L.; Shah, V.; Jaeglé, L.; Luo, G.; Yu, F.; Adeniran, J. A.; Lin, J.; Brauer, M. Source Sector and Fuel Contributions to Ambient PM2.5 and Attributable Mortality across Multiple Spatial Scales. Nat. Commun. 2021 , 12 (1), 3594. (7) Wang, L.; Luo, D.; Liu, X.; Zhu, J.; Wang, F.; Li, B.; Li, L. Effects of PM2.5 Exposure on Reproductive System and Its Mechanisms. Chemosphere 2021 , 264 , 128436. (8) Southerland, V. A.; Brauer, M.; Mohegh, A.; Hammer, M. S.; Van Donkelaar, A.; Martin, R. V.; Apte, J. S.; Anenberg, S. C. Global Urban Temporal Trends in Fine Particulate Matter (PM2 · 5) and Attributable Health Burdens: Estimates from Global Datasets. Lancet Planet. Health 2022 , 6 (2), e139 − e146. (9) Lary, D. J.; Faruque, F. S.; Malakar, N.; Moore, A.; Roscoe, B.; Adams, Z. L.; Eggelston, Y. Estimating the Global Abundance of Ground Level Presence of Particulate Matter (PM2.5). Geospat. Health 2014 , 8 (3), 611. (10) Mukhopadhyay, A. Composite Nonwovens in Filters: Applications. Composite Non-woven Materials 2014 , 164 − 210. (11) Payen, J.; Vroman, P.; Lewandowski, M.; Perwuelz, A.; Callé- Chazelet, S.; Thomas, D. Influence of Fiber Diameter, Fiber Combinations and Solid Volume Fraction on Air Filtration Properties in Nonwovens. Text. Res. J. 2012 , 82 (19), 1948 − 1959. (12) Singh, S. S.; Zaitoon, A.; Arvaj, L.; Balamurugan, S.; Manickavasagan, A.; Lim, L.-T. Biobased Antiviral Nonwoven Mask Filter with High Filtration Performance. ACS Appl. Eng. Mater. 2023 , 1 (1), 646 − 659. (13) Santos, A. S.; Ferreira, P. J. T.; Maloney, T. Bio-Based Materials for Nonwovens. Cellulose 2021 , 28 (14), 8939 − 8969. (14) Cicconi, G.; Santulli, C. Chapter 16 - Use of Coir Fibers for Water and Air Filters. In Coir Fiber and its Composites ; Jawaid, M., Ed.; Woodhead Publishing, 2022; pp 345 − 359..
aerosolized particulate filtration efficiency of the nonwovens without affecting the water vapor transmission rate. The particulate filtration efficiency of EFB/hairy cellulose fiber nonwoven is comparable to HVAC air filters made from polypropylene and air filter bags made from polyester. However, higher binder content reduced the QF due to increased air resistance, indicating that 10 wt % of hairy cellulose pulp fibers as binder refined for 30 min provided the optimal balance of filtration performance and airflow. In addition to the high filtration efficiency, the EFB/hairy cellulose fiber nonwovens containing 10 wt % hairy cellulose fibers demonstrate excellent formability, enabling to be molded or even remolded from a rigid form through the steam- rewetting approach. This dual-forming capability is particularly advantageous for applications requiring customized shaping as well as for ease of transportation, where the material can be shipped in a flat, compact form and later reformed to its desired shape. LCA results highlight the environmental benefits of the EFB/hairy cellulose fiber nonwoven, with significantly lower impacts than polyester filters due to the replacement of fossil-derived materials and the environmental credits from biogenic CO 2 uptake and avoided emissions from open disposal of EFB. These plastic-free nonwoven air filters not only provide a sustainable alternative to synthetic air filters but also address global challenges related to resource use, waste management, and environmental sustainability.
■ ASSOCIATED CONTENT * sı Supporting Information
The Supporting Information is available free of charge at https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acssuschemeng.5c00041. Information on the materials, manufacturing process, characterization, and lifecycle inventory of the EFB/ (hairy) cellulose fiber nonwovens (PDF)
■ AUTHOR INFORMATION Corresponding Author
Koon-Yang Lee − Department of Aeronautics, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K.; Institute for Molecular Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K.; orcid.org/0000-0003-0777-
2292; Phone: +44 (0)20 7594 5150; Email: koonyang.lee@imperial.ac.uk
Authors Dharu Feby Smaradhana − Department of Aeronautics, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K.; Mechanical Engineering Department, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta 57126, Indonesia Joanne Li − Department of Aeronautics, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K. Complete contact information is available at: https://pubs.acs.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.5c00041 Author Contributions The manuscript was written through contributions of all authors. All authors have given approval to the final version of the manuscript. Funding Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP) Notes The authors declare no competing financial interest.
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https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.5c00041 ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2025, 13, 6209 − 6221
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