Agricola
Agricola’s career followed a steady rise, through the state and army offices of tribune, quaestor, praetor, soldier, military commander, culminating in his return to Britain as appointed governor in 77 AD. Throughout his early years in the service of the state he demonstrated the same qualities and ‘by his gallantry in action and by t he modesty of his reports he evaded envy without missing renown’ ( Agricola 8). Upon arrival, Agricola immediately attacked the Ordovices in northern Wales (in retaliation for their raid on a cavalry detachment), daringly courageous to do so with winter approaching, and ‘slaughtered almost the entire nation’ ( Ag . 18). This punitive expedition completed the conquest of Wales, as Agricola dared also to seize the island of Anglesey, but such brutality is impossible for us to view positively today. Tacitus, however, calmly notes that Agricola was only so harsh against resistance and rebellion knowing that ‘arms effect little if injustice follows behind’ ( Ag. 19). Hence, after a terror campaign through northern England where ‘all the time he gave the enemy no re st, but constantly launched plundering raids’ ( Ag . 20), Agricola began a concerted effort to consolidate the administration and purge corruption, ensuring strong, just government. He vigorously set about correcting his predecessors’ abuses by easing and redistributing the grain levy; he ended corruption among those who collected the tribute, with the result that peace ‘which through the negligence or arrogance of former governors, had been as much feared as war’ became universally respected ( Ag . 20). He also furthered Roman way of life by spreading the use of the toga and inspiring a love for the Latin language such that ‘in place of distaste . . . came a passion to command it’ ( Ag. 21), going so far as to personally tutor the sons of leading men. He embarked on an ambitious building programme erecting temples, public squares and houses (evidence of these now uncovered in excavations). Beyond this, the text moves to Agricola’s conquest of Scotland, his most famous achievement. This narrative culminates with the account of the Battle of Mons Graupius, preceded by two speeches, one by Agricola, the other by Calgachus, both addressing their troops. These monologues are masterpieces of rhetoric yet remarkably different in content and style. Both are likely inventions by Tacitus, partly or wholly, which raises the question of their intent as literary devices.
On one level, they elevate the battle to the realm of important confrontations, not unlike balancing speeches given by Hannibal and Scipio in Livy. 4 However, their real importance extends beyond this. 5
4 Livy, 21.40-44. 5 Liebeshuetz 1966.
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