Verbal Reasoning • Verbal reasoning—or the ability to draw conclusions from implicit information—plays a causal role in reading comprehension from kindergarten to Grade 12 (Elbro & Buch- Iversen, 2013; Elleman, 2017; Mohr et al., 2023; Oakhill & Cain, 2012). • The ability to draw inferences is one of the main features distinguishing proficient readers from less proficient readers (Mohr et al.). • Fortunately, a meta-analysis of over 25 studies shows that inference instruction with less-skilled readers effectively improves inferential and literal comprehension of a text (Elleman, 2017). • Effective inference instruction helps students “use their background knowledge and integrate it with the information in the text, self-generated elaborations, graphic organizers that connect concepts, and text clues” (Elleman & Oslund, 2019, p. 5). Comprehension Strategies • “Reading strategies are deliberate, goal-directed attempts to control and modify the reader’s efforts to decode text, understand words, and construct meanings of text” (Afflerbach et al., 2008, p. 368). • A large body of research indicates that teaching students decoding (Steacy et al., 2016), vocabulary (Wright & Cervetti, 2017), and reading strategies (Okkinga et al., 2018) not only improves word reading skills, but also predicts reading comprehension (Duke & Cartwright, 2021). • Researchers stress the importance of students monitoring and regulating their thinking processes while learning—a set of skills researchers call metacognition (Mayer, 2011; National Research Council, 2000). • A student with strong reading comprehension uses different strategies to make meaning of the text that she or he engages with, and comprehension is tied to the effort as much as it is to ability (Baker & Brown, 1984; Pressley et al., 1992). • Evidence-based strategies include monitoring understanding of texts, predicting, activating prior knowledge, using text structure, visualizing, making inferences, summarizing during reading, generating questions, self-explaining, and self-evaluating while reading (Afferblach et al., 2020; Duke et al., 2011; Filderman et al., 2021; NICHD, 2000; Okkinga et al., 2018). • Research shows that comprehension strategy instruction is most effective when it uses a gradual release approach that provides high support and decreases support as students can carry out tasks independently (Raphael et al., 2009). Writing • Graham et al. define writing as “a goal directed and self-sustained cognitive activity requiring the skillful management of (a) the writing environment; (b) the constraints imposed by the writing topic; (c) the intentions of the writer(s); and (d) the processes, knowledge, and skills involved in composing” (2013, p.4).
SCHOLASTIC LITERACY FRAMEWORK EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 8
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