It is also important to teach strategies for comprehension monitoring. To be successful readers, children must routinely check whether they understand what they read. When something does not make sense, they can take action by rereading text and asking questions (Cain, 2010; Shanahan et al., 2010b). Ultimately, it is crucial that children receive explicit instruction in reading comprehension over the course of K–3 education (Shanahan et al., 2010b), as children’s comprehension strategies in Grade 3 predict later reading comprehension ability (Oakhill & Cain, 2012). The knowledge that a child brings to the task of reading also plays a vital role in reading comprehen- sion. When children already know information about a specific topic, they use better comprehension strategies and remember more of what they read (Cain, 2010; Moats, 2020). Through class discussions, scaffolded reading materials, and multimedia resources, teachers can provide the necessary content knowledge for a child to understand a given text. Executive Function One reading-specific executive function is called graphophonological-semantic cognitive flexibility (GSF). GSF is “a bridging process that involves the ability to simultaneously consider and actively switch between the letter-sound (graphophonological) and meaning (semantic) features of printed words” (Duke & Cartwright, 2021, p. S31). Education studies have shown that GSF can actually be taught in the classroom and that elementary students’ reading ability is improved after GSF instruction (Duke & Cartwright, 2021). An example of GSF instruction is to have students sort word cards by phoneme and by meaning, thus helping children learn to think flexibly (Cartwright et al., 2020). More generally, students should be taught metacognitive strategies for reading, such as modeling thinking out loud to monitor their own comprehension while reading (MacKenzie, 2019). Motivation and Engagement Independent reading is a measure of a child’s motivation and engagement as well as a driver of reading skills. One way to motivate a child to read is to provide more choice and diversity in the texts that students are offered (Wigfield et al., 2016). Access to a wide variety of high-quality literature ensures that students see themselves and understand others (Bishop, 1990). More broadly, culturally respon- sive teaching can help integrate students’ cultural experiences and strengths in order to resonate with their lives (Jensen, 2021). Culham (2019) argues that students should be able to see themselves in the text—not just in books about historical firsts or notable people but also in reading materials that reflect students’ everyday experiences. It is well established that confidence is a predictor of later success. Students who are confident and see themselves as competent readers are more likely to continue to work hard during difficult tasks and choose the right strategies to conquer those tasks (Wigfield et al., 2016). Teachers can work to foster confi- dence in students by providing materials that are just right for their independent reading level, engaging students in supported read-alouds, capitalizing on oral storytelling, and using adaptive and engaging digital
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The Science of Reading | What Research Says About Setting Young Readers Up for Success
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