Utilitarianism
argument as an ethical contract theorist, youwould be hypocritical as in ethical contract theory, rights 52 are just a necessary mea ns for enforcing social and individual contracts. It’s indifferent whether we desire justice as a means to happiness or as an end desire in itself (or both); justice is still an integral part of utilitarianism.
Impartiality
Whilst I think utilitarianism’s impartiality and objectivity is a strength, some people see this as a disadvantage. 53 People place a moral emphasis (moral in the sense that they are expressing their intuitive opinion) on family. Family is something we are naturally conditioned to prioritize over others (‘familial duty’). Familial duty is more scientifically known as ‘kin selection’. Genes want to reproduce (logically so). This is why parents care about their children more than those of others; their children carry their genes and so to continue the gene reproduction, the children must be successful and reproduce themselves. Natural selection favours genes that increase the reproductive success of their carriers. We often think of ‘carries’ as referring to ourselves carrying our own genes. But people are aware that their siblings are also carriers of almost the same genes as themselves. So in a wide world the best way to spread our genes is to not only be successful ourselves, but also to have our siblings [and those with similar genes to us] be successful. This refers to ‘g44d’. Kin selection can also foster sacrificial behaviour: parents, in order to see their genes succeed, prioritize the survival of their children over their own survival. 54
G66d versus g44d versus g88d
One cannot argue ‘g88d’ is any better than ‘g66d’ or ‘g44d’. I prefer actions which are ‘g88d’ , but ‘g44d’ is arguably more descriptive of how people actually act. It may even be a built-in part of utility to desire happiness and survival upon those closer to you. On a personal level ‘g44d’ is probably most useful. But when I consider utilitarianism as attempting to model a system for everyone - ‘g88d’ is most useful. 55
52 The term ‘rights’ is extremely ambiguous. Anybody can, on whim, claim anything to be a right. Rights clash all the time and the extent to which we have rights is heavily debated. I will take a ‘means to utility’ view of rights. So, we will reject the idea there is a right to not have the state to interfere in your life. For example, I find it deplorable someone can claim they have the right not to wear a seatbelt. On the other hand, most countries do not consider there to be a right to food and shelter, but under our ‘rights as a means to utility’ we might consider there to be a right to have access to (or be provided) food and shelter. Those who argue against this as a right do so on the grounds it would cause the collapse of housing markets and bring about more negative utility. They argue a few homeless may be necessary to incentivize people to work, this returns to the idea that utilitarianism would have to factor in pain’s necessity to pleasure. Of course , the best option would be to provide shelter but not so nice that there was no incentive to work, this I believe is the utilitarian option and what we have in most developed countries. 53 Ashford 2000. 54 This paragraph also partially explains cronyism. Cronyism is mainly a quid pro quo exchange, but we may irrationally promote strangers who we feel are similar to us because that feeling of similarity is a possible sharing of genes. 55 The self-transcendental disposition (altruism) and self-accumulation disposition (the personal accumulation of wealth and status and non-generosity) are both seen as innate parts of being human yet are inherently contradictory. Studies have shown that their prominences can be shaped by upbringing and exposure to different media. Meaning how g66d, g44d or g88d you are is shapeable.
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