Utilitarianism
knowledge; we’re curious to see what the adrenaline of a rollercoaster feels like or what standing on the top of a mountain feels like. So those actions which maximize the fulfilment of rational desires which are ends in themselves (for the greatest number of people) can be described as ‘good’. It is imperative to ignore irrational desires, desires which undermine one’s long term desires. This is an important distinction between this form of utilitarianism and preference utilitarianism. One can distinguish between a rational and an irrational desire by observing that rational desires are constant desires over time and irrational ones are heated/momentary desires which will often clash with other desires (namely the rational, long-term, desires – or end-desires). Can we really discriminate between different desires? I believe we can. The desire for a cigarette, which undermines the long-term desire to be happy by not falling ill or dying, is an example of a momentary desire. However, if someone were to desire to be ‘here for a good time not a long time’ then smoking would not undermine their long-term desire (so would not be irrational). 4 ‘Utility’ can be defined as ‘ rational end- desires’. In addition to relating to ideas outside of itself (e.g. the desire for pleasure), ‘utility’ is also circular , because, i n part, ‘utility’ is ‘the desire for more utility’. So ‘utility’ is ‘what is desirable’ and we do desire utility. This is where we draw the idea of ‘maxim izing ’ utility from: maximizing itself is an inherent characteristic of utility. Schopenhauer may have disagreed with this, instead arguing that we should strive to have fewer desires. But nobody desires to overcome and shun one's undefeatable desires. It is impossible to shun one’s end desires because in doing so that becomes your new end desire which you are trying to maximize. On top of this that desire would just be a desire for peace, which is a means to happiness. 5 Utility is desire on a personal level: it is what you and I desire singularly. Do I desire things for other people? Imay desire not to see themsuffering but partially because seeing themsomakesme feel awful. I may desire justice for everyone but largely because seeing otherwise makes me feel bad. This means that utility can incorporate altruism. However, for the sake of creating a clear, naturalistic interpretation of utility, I will define utility as personal desire as opposed to society's desire. When I talk about utility in this essay, I am referring either to individual utility, or the collection of individuals’ utilities when referring to objective decision-making. When I refer to ‘society’ , it i s as ‘a collection of the utilities of th e many individuals’ .
Higher and lower pleasures
‘It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.’ 6 From the modified definition of utility, we are now in a position to dismiss Mill’s concept of utilitarianism in regard to different forms of pleasure. Mill was expressing a distinctively personal view when he suggested that there are specific pleasures of different values, given that desire is a matter of personal taste. 4 Irrational desires could also be desires which do not undermine your personal long-term desires: They could be manufactured by propaganda playing on the manipulatable emotions of ‘prejudice, superstition, anti -social vices such as envy or arrogance . . . ’ , as Crisp puts it. 5 I believe shunning one’s desires is most like ly an irrational desire. 6 Mill 1863: 13.
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