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considerations. As he stated, “…this is not to say that the ego as a definite psychic system is inborn; it rather stresses the point that the development of this system is traceable not only to the impact of reality and of the instinctual drives but also to a set of factors that cannot be identified with either of them” (1950, p. 79). In collaboration with Kris and Loewenstein, Hartmann (1964) spelled out the implications and applications of the psychoanalytic theory of the ego. They defined each of the three centers of psychic activity in terms of their functions and their interrelationships among (inter-systemic) and within (intra-systemic) the three centers of psychic functioning. Hartmann also emphasized the importance of detailing the features of the various ego functions and their interrelationship with drive and superego considerations as well as with each other (Bellak, Hurvich, & Gediman, 1973). An overall way to group these was in terms of autonomous, defensive and synthetic/integrative functions. He also called for a specification in which ego functions were compromised in a given instance of ego weakness , thereby highlighting individual differences. Conceptual evolution of ego functions is exemplified by Reality Testing , which had been identified by Freud already in 1895, will be specified below. Additionally, Hartmann characterized ego functions as reflecting either primary or secondary autonomy . Those functions based on primary autonomy included among others attention, concentration, memory, learning, perception, motor function and intention. Secondarily, autonomous functions often begin as substantially defensive (and thereby related to conflict) and through a change of function take on other purposes and meanings of an adaptive nature, such as habit patterns, learned complex skills, work routines, hobbies and interests. He also emphasized that this autonomy and freedom from intrapsychic conflict was relative and that such trends could subsequently be re-drawn drawn into inter-systemic conflicts via re-instinctualization . In intra-systemic conflicts various ego functions may be in opposition to each other in terms of their directions or aims, or the intra-systemic conflicts may be between defensive and non-defensive ego operations. Hartmann’s concept of secondary autonomy was understood as a result of a change of function. Just as progressive neutralization of drives (de-libidinization, de-agressivization, sublimation) allows ego growth through secondary autonomy, regressive de-neutralization leads to re-instinctualization (libidinization, sexualization, agressivization) of ego functions, and a loss of autonomy, reality adaptation and constriction of creativity. But the structure of the ego is not the only locus where Hartmann has made significant and original contributions. His scope ranges over the entire field of psycho-analysis. Many new insights have come, for example in the area of the psycho-analytic theory of instinctual drives themselves (Hartmann 1948/1964). The undifferentiated phase of mental development differentiates early into ego and id due to the protracted helplessness of the young of the human species. Hartmann suggests that it is this very process of structural differentiation to which the differences between the instinctual behavior of lower animals and the behavior of human beings are mainly due. Many functions which are taken care of by the instincts in animals become in man functions of the
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