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Joseph Lichtenberg Building on Kohut’s Self-Psychology and Stolorow’s Intersubjectivity (Stolorow and Atwood, 1992), Joseph Lichtenberg developed a Motivational Systems Theory in which “self” is conceptualized as an experiential self or a sense of self. This sense of self exists in a complex context of sensations and information from the individual’s body and from the individual’s relatedness to other individuals, groups, and culture, from responsiveness and adaptation to inanimate objects and non-human animate others. In the matrix of attachment experience, the infant’s sense of self originates from agency – that is, from being a doer, i.e., doing, acting and taking in, initiating and responding. According to Lichtenberg (Lichtenberg, Lachmann, and Fosshage, 201l) central to the intentions and goals of the agentic sense of self are: seeking a safe base at times of danger and loss (Bowlby, 1988), being responded to by caregivers with mirroring affirmation, establishing a sense of commonality (twinship), and admiring (idealizing) others ( Kohut, 1984) and being admired. Successful mutual regulation of these fundamental relationships of attachment to individuals and affiliation with groups (the family, peers, etc.) leads to corresponding changes in the sense of self, in the other, and builds a generalized positive ambiance that influences further expectations and adaptations. While one can speak of a core sense of self, of identity, of personhood, the experiencing of self differs with the multiplicity of intentions and goals. Overall, Lichtenberg (1989) has described five motivational systems in the development of self, including needs for: 1. psychic regulation of bodily requirements; 2. attachment and affiliation; 3. exploration and assertion; 4. aversive reactivity; 5. and sexual and sensual needs. In normal adaptive situations, the sense of self shifts with fluctuating dominance, presence, or absence of intentions to regulate physiological requirements, form attachment to individuals, and affiliations with groups, give and receive caretaking, explore one’s surround and assert one’s preferences, express aversion through antagonism and withdrawal, and/or seek sensual enjoyment and sexual excitement (Lichtenberg, 2008). In response to chronic and/or traumatic stress, the sense of self can be fragmented in disassociated states, restricted through pathological accommodation, and diminished and debilitated in regressive and depressive states. Assaults on the sense of agency, self esteem and self worth, especially in an individual vulnerable to shame, guilt and loss of pride and confidence affects the sense of self leading often to rage, suspicion, and preoccupation with vengeance fantasies. Viewed broadly the sense of self as a doer doing is sustained by experiences of empathy or made vulnerable to loss of a sense of cohesion if empathic connection is disrupted or absent (Kohut, 1977). Among much cross-fertilization between Self Psychology and Relational perspectives, Howard Bacal (1985, 1998a,b) identifies ‘relational self psychology’, where the focus is on the context of the subjective relationship rather than the relationship as such. Questioning the role of ‘optimal frustration’ in development and in therapy, he argues for ‘optimal responsiveness’ as a better description of what is needed for the self.
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