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II. HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF THE CONCEPT
II. A. Evolution of the Concept in Freud Sigmund Freud (1892, 1895) initially used the term symbol in his “Neuroses of Defense”, “Studies on Hysteria”, and “The Project for Scientific Psychology”, while describing the use of symbolic displacements in hysterical symptom formation. Specifically, the hysterical symptom is described as a “mnemic symbol” of pathogenic trauma or conflict. (Freud 1893-1895, p. 107). For Freud, hysterical symptoms had a meaning, which could be discerned through its symbolic representation of an underlying wish or phantasy. In “The Interpretation of Dreams” (Freud 1900), Freud described symbolization as a method of disguise used by the primary process to transform the original (unacceptable) dream- thoughts and wishes into the manifest dream. Freud (1900) revised the chapter on Symbolism more than any other section of “The Interpretation of Dreams”. The first edition contains critique of the ancient method of dream interpretations, relying on ‘fixed symbols’ while recognizing also some similarities with his own individualized interpretations, discerning individual meaning, taking in account free associations of the dreamer. At the same time, he acknowledges the importance of figurative representations, that are comprehensible without any associations. He points to the existence of ‘typical dreams’, where a conflict or a wish is expressed in a similar fashion regardless of an individual dreamer. The chapter on ‘Typical Dreams’ especially underwent several expansions between 1900 and 1911, many of which were later transferred into 1914 4 th edition’s chapter on ‘Representation by Symbols’. Freud thus recognized both – the universality and individual specificity of unconscious symbolism: when writing of the universality of unconscious symbolism, Freud had pointed out that there often are no associations to symbols, nor are associations necessary for analytic interpretation of symbolic expressions. Dreams and fantasies use symbols already present in unconscious thinking because of their representability and their effective evasion of censorship. Yet, along with their universal character, the ambiguity and overdetermination of unconscious symbolism indicates possible multiple meanings of symbolic representations. Already in the 1909 2 nd edition of “The Interpretation of Dreams”, Freud states: “… symbolism is not peculiar to dreams, but is characteristic of unconscious ideation, …and it is to be found in folklore, and in popular myths, legends, linguistic idioms, proverbial wisdom and current jokes, to a more complete extent than in dreams” (1900, 1909 ed., p. 351). In the 1914 4 th edition’s chapter “Representation in Symbols”, he states that many symbols have a relatively fixed meaning and are almost universal, with little variation across individuals and cultures. They are given and not formed and their roots can be found in the archaic (individual and phylogenetic) past. Here, he also expands on the previous quote from
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