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2) Things that were identified with one another in childhood on the basis of their similarity (penis = tooth, butterfly = vagina) can later represent themselves as symbols [tooth for penis, butterfly for vulva]. 3) As a consequence of the repression of the sexual (latency period), the objects which are equated in infancy undergo symbolic overemphasis [a kind of “return of the repressed”]. In his later writings, Ferenczi (1933/1949) importantly noted that trauma effected a breakdown of symbolic functioning. In addition, he also noted that sometimes the distinction between the symbol and its referent vanishes, especially in grossly traumatized and psychotic patients, a precursor of a later concept of symbolic equation (Segal 1950). II. Bd. Ernest Jones In various editions of “The Theory of Symbolism” (1912a, b; 1916; 1916/1948; 1948), Jones emphases the disguise of the psychoanalytic symbol, based upon repression. What does not (need to) undergo repression is not symbolized. Jones places symbols in the general class of indirect representations with a double meaning. Symbolism refers to presentations of images or words, for example, that result from a compromise between the unconscious wishes and the censorship. In so far as symbol formation has a defensive function, it is not simply a primary process mechanism. Accordingly, although similarly to primary process, symbols are not intended for communication, Jones’ theory of symbolism goes beyond the primary process mechanisms of condensation and displacement, and the primary process function of immediate discharge and wish fulfillment. Jones stressed the defensive formation and function of symbolism rather than the symbolic gratification of drives. There is a correspondence between the symbols of the body image, blood relations and life and death, and the themes of myths found in primitive cultures. Symbols are not learned, but are connected to the man’s archaic heritage, and are not originally intended for communication. As far as the relation between symbolic substitution and sublimation is concerned, Jones distinguishes sublimation from symbolization, considering symbolization not part of the process of sublimation. He states that symbols arise when the affect investing the symbolized idea has not been able to undergo the modification necessary to become a true sublimation. For Jones then, symbols are not part of sublimated activities. Overall, Jones, who based his theory of symbolism on Freud’s work, states that 1. A symbol represents what has been repressed from consciousness and that the process of symbolization is carried on unconsciously. 2. What is represented symbolically involves the self, immediate blood relations and the phenomena of birth, life and death. 3. That symbols have a constant meaning, and 4. As a defensive operation, symbolization arises as the result of
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