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sadism the defence implies expulsion, whereas in relation to the object it implies destruction.” (Klein 1930a, p. 25; 1930b, p. 219; 1930c, p. 210). Sadism directed towards the object destroys the object, which is now perceived as a potential persecutor by the ego, which fears its retaliation. Obstacles to symbolism can occur when more primitive defences based on splitting, fragmentation and projective identification are employed. This may be in the context of developmental deficits, trauma and psychotic or narcissistic solutions. It was Klein who linked the capacity for symbol formation with recognition of reality (especially the separateness of the object) in the depressive position. Difficulty in tolerating depressive anxieties is related to the recognition of both destructive (hateful) and loving impulses towards the object as well as the complexity of the object, neither idealized nor denigrated - neither exclusively good nor totally bad. This confronts a person with their own needs as well as their vulnerability and dependency on the object. Maintaining defensive splitting with paranoid anxieties as well as manic defences stands in the way of true symbol formation. Omnipotent defences can then be employed where nuance is lost and phantasy is equated with reality. Overall, Klein regarded symbols as the representations of unconscious phantasy in the form of derivatives of the unconscious. She described the capacity to symbolize unconscious frightening, sadistic aggressive feelings for the object as an important step in Ego development. She described two processes in the usage of symbols: splitting and projective identification. Latin American analysts are especially attentive to how, in Klein’s theorizing, the process of displacement becomes the basis for symbolization: Through his massive projections into her, the analyst (Klein) became filled with Dick’s own dangerous part-objects (poisonous urine, faeces, bad penis) while Dick’s own mind appeared to empty itself. Klein stated that sadism is activated in each of the various sources of libidinal pleasure. Regarding the oral sadistic phase, she described phantasies where the mother's body —which contains babies, and also the father's penis— is attacked. She proposed that Dick sadistically wanted to destroy an object that represents the penis. This object becomes persecutory, leading the child to displace this object to other objects. Klein then theorizes that this displacement from one object to another, is the origin of symbolization. Through what Klein referred to as the ‘Symbolic Equation’, sexual organs find their representation in objects. This is how things, activities, and interests become the subject of libidinous phantasies. “Thus, the child is constantly impelled to make new equations which form the basis of his interest in new objects, and in symbolism” (1930c, p. 210). Additionally, for Klein: “A sufficient quantity of anxiety is the necessary basis for an abundance of symbol-formation and of phantasy; an adequate capacity on the part of the ego to tolerate anxiety is necessary if it is to be satisfactorily worked over and if this basic phase is to have a favourable issue and the development of the ego to be successful” (Klein, 1930a, p. 26), or, in Latin American version, translating anxiety as ‘anguish’, “a sufficient amount of anguish is a necessary basis for the abundant formation of symbols and phantasy” (1930c, p. 211), and to stay in contact with reality. However, the excess of ‘anguish’ –arising, for example, as a result of oral sadism– leads to the opposite effect: the ego stops its development and
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