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more archaic form of symbolism, representing complex meanings and associations as a single image or idea – not dissimilar to Freud’s technique of dream analysis when complex associations are being explored. Moreover, these processes further lead to differentiation of the mind into conscious and unconscious when a semi-permeable contact barrier is formed from alpha-elements enabling mechanisms of repression instead of expulsion. In the later developments of his ideas, processes of transformation play a crucial role in producing representations (symbolic versions) of the ultimate reality. In this way, more finite meanings and representations are experienced and conceptualized within an interpersonal context. Bion however emphasizes the fact that subsequent transformations, acquiring more symbolic and abstract forms are only imperfect approximations of the psychic reality. He described a particular constellation of internal object relations with the presence of a harsh merciless superego. For Bion, the ego-destructive superego precludes linking and thinking processes leading to loss of the capacity to create meaning and symbolic representation. (a consequence of lack of containment and excessive projective identification by the primary object as described above). Failure of symbolism leads to concreteness of thinking and enactment. Donald Meltzer (1984) originally elaborates on Bion’s notions of alpha-function and linking that offer the possibility of creating meanings to psychic experience. As Bion did before him, Meltzer emphasized that the capacity to explore dreams and psychic life are more important than the final symbolic representations themselves (especially the discursive ones) – implying the continuous meaning-creating capacity of dreaming. He believes that the distinction between impoverished approximations of conscious meaning and the complexity of unconscious meanings is important to note, reminding us of Bion’s ideogram and his emphasis on dreaming. Symbolic expression does not always rely on verbal interpretation, whereas other forms of visual and artistic expression can represent internal experience often in a much richer way. Briefly, other authors have described difficulties or defensive obstacles in creating a third position (Britton, 1989), as well as in the creation of a three-dimensional space for thinking (Bick, 1968). Others see a failure to tolerate and occupy paradoxical space (Winnicott, 1953; Parsons, 2000). These all are seen as precluding symbol formation. III. Ab. The British Independent Tradition From Freud’s early work on hysteria and his account of the hysterical symptom as a representation of libidinal conflict, psychoanalysis has maintained a consistent interest in the human capacity to register how one thing may stand for another through symbolic structures and forms which can be identified and used in the consulting room. A concern with different forms of symbolising and of symbols themselves and what they make available to the human subject is central to all psychoanalytic theories, and to those of the human sciences and the humanities.
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