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This dissertation for the Ph.D. MFT Degree
by
Judith K. TenElshof
has been approved at the
Graduate School of Psychology
Fuller Theological Seminary
June, 1998
~ 111- 5:~,, ?J.P. niceM.strength, Ph.D.
Associate Dean
ool of Psychology
Attachment Styles and Spiritual Maturity:
The Role of Secure Attachment in Predicting
Spiritual Maturity among Seminary Students
A Dissertation
Presented to the
Faculty of the Graduate School of Psychology
Division ofMarriage and Family
Fuller Theological Seminary
In Partial Fulfillment
of the
Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
(Marital and Family Therapy)
By
Judith K. TenElshof
June, 1998
Acknowledgements
I want to express my deep appreciation to all those who have influenced, encouraged,
supported, and enabled my personal and academic growth. This dissertation is a significant
accomplishment in my life not only because it represents the culmination of my doctoral
studies, but also because it contains the expression of my passion for the people called by God
to serve the Christian community.
I would like to first acknowledge my husband, Gene who first saw my academic
potential and has been devoted to me with contagious enthusiasm and tireless effort. This
represents an unconditional commitment to me in giving faithful love and service, a precious
family, time to pursue doctoral studies, and a hopeful future. I also want to thank my children
Tami and her husband Jerry and Gregg and his wife Laurel with enormous feelings of
affection for their faithful Christian walk which brings peace, prayer, joy, and love to my
work. My adorable grandchildren, Brooklynn Joy and Zacary Dean have brought
unspeakable joy carrying me through the hardships of this process. I know that completing
this task would not have been possible without the generous and caring support of my church
family and friends and I want to thank you all.
I would especially like to thank Jim Furrow for his leadership and challenge to my
academic growth given throughout this project by serving as the chair of my committee. I
would also like to thank Janice Strength for her encouragement given with truth and grace and
Ray Anderson's integration of theology and psychology which has focused my insights . You
all represent the outstanding spiritual and academic commitment of faculty in the Marriage and
Family Division and at Fuller Theological Seminary.
I especially want to thank the Dean of Talbot School of Theology, Dennis Dirks whose
prayers and financial support made this achievement possible. I also want to thank my new
colleague and friend, Stephen Piesner who was a faithful reader and mentor of my work.
Finally, a special thanks to all my colleagues at Talbot and support staff who are committed to
my passion for the restoration and character development of Christian leaders.
11.
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
ii
List ofTables and Figures
vi
Abstract
2
Chapter One - Introduction
3
The Complexity of Spiritual Maturity
3
The Roots of Spiritual Maturity
6
Chapter Two - Literature Review
11
Introduction
11
The Theological Foundations of Spiritual Maturity
11
Relationship is the Foundation of Personhood
11
Alienation ofRelationship Through Sin
14
Restoration of Relationships Through Salvation and
Reconciliation
16
The Psychological Foundations of Relational Maturity
17
Foundations of Relational Attachment
18
The Role ofAffect
20
21
The Development of a Working Model of Attachment
Continuity of Attachment from Child to Adult
Relationships
23
Table of Contents Continued
Summary of the Psychological Foundations of
Relational Maturity
27
The Integrated Foundations of Spiritual and Relational Maturity 28
Relational Attachments and Spiritual Maturity of Seminary
Students
34
Hypotheses
35
Chapter Three - Methodology
36
36
Sample
36
Sample Characteristics
36
Variables
Measurement ofVariables
42
Methodological Limitations
48
49
Chapter Four - Results
49
Measurement Evaluation
Evaluation of Statistical Assumptions
50
Hypothesis Testing
53
Chapter Five - Discussion
59
Discussion of Results
59
Major Findings
62
Implications of the Study
66
Table of Contents Continued
Limitations of the Study
72
Future Research
73
Conclusion
75
76
References
88
Appendix
89
A. Participant Letter
90
Survey Form
90
Demographics
94
Faith Maturity Scale
Adult Attachment Scale
97
100
Hazen and Shaver Childhood Measure
101
Parental Bonding Instrument
103
B. Correlation Matrix
C. Regression Analysis using Combined Maternal and Paternal
Childhood Measures
104
Total Faith Maturity
105
Vertical Faith Maturity
106
Horizontal Faith Maturity
List of Tables and Figures
Figure 1.
The Social Structure of Human Spirituality
30
Table 1.
Demographic Characteristics of Sample
37
Table 2.
Comparison of Internal Consistency Reliability Coefficients 50
Table 3.
Comparison of Maternal Parental Bonding with Childhood Attachment 51
Table 4.
Comparison of Means across Attachment Categories
52
Table 5.
Correlations Between Secure Adult Attachment and Childhood and Faith Maturity Measures Summary of Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Total Faith Maturity Summary of Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Vertical Faith Maturity
54
Table 6.
56
Table 7 .
57
Table 8.
Summary of Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Horizontal Faith Maturity
58
Correlation Matrix Between the Independent Variables and the Dependent Variable Summary of Regression Analysis for Combined Maternal and Paternal Childhood Measures Predicting Total Faith Maturity Summary of Regression Analysis for Combined Maternal and Paternal Childhood Measures Predicting Vertical Faith Maturity Summary of Regression Analysis for Combined Maternal and Paternal Childhood Measure Predicting Horizontal Faith Maturity
Table 9.
103
Table 10.
104
Table 11.
105
Table 12.
106
VI.
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 1
Running Head: ATTACHMENT AND SPIRITUAL MATURITY
Attachment Styles and Spiritual Maturity:
The Role of Secure Attachment in Predicting
Spiritual Maturity among Seminary Students
Judith K. TenElshof
Graduate School ofPsychology
Division ofMarriage and Family
Fuller Theological Seminary
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 2
Abstract:
This study investigates the relationships between secure child and adult
attachment styles and their influence on spiritual maturity. A survey study of 216
seminary students was conducted using the Parental Bonding Instrument, Adult
Attachment Scale, and the Faith Maturity Index. Previous research in attachment
relationships suggests that early parental interactions generate internalized models of self
and others which are carried forward to new relationships. Secure adult attachment styles
were predicted to relate positively with spiritual maturity. Findings of the study suggest
that adult measures of secure attachment styles are correlated with Faith Maturity.
Measures of parental bonding evidenced minimal associations with Adult Attachment
Styles and were weaker correlates of Faith Maturity. Secure Adult Attachment was a
stronger predictor of Faith Maturity when compared to measures of Parental Bonding.
Implications are offered for religious training institutions, the church, and the community.
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 3
Chapter One
Introduction
The Complexity of Spiritual Maturity
There is a general consensus among Christians that spiritual maturity is a desired objective of the Christian life. It is understood as a complex process guided by the Holy
Spirit (Romans 8:9-11) with its goal to become like Jesus. This is accomplished through a
relationship with God that results in the training, shaping, and reshaping ofevery area of
a person's life. Evidence of this remolding is manifested in a believer's life in the following
areas; the mind and will (John 8:31-32), the heart (John 13:34-35), and the character
(John 15:7-8) (Wilkins, 1997a). This process of change results in a deeper capacity for
intimacy in relationship to God and others.
While there is some consensus of the definition that spiritual maturity is a goal,
· there is little agreement as to the components of this process. Throughout history the
church has suggested a variety ofapproaches to spiritual maturity. One could categorize
these approaches in psychological terms as behavioral, cognitive, or affective
corresponding to the remolding of the character, the mind and will, or the heart
respectively. The behavioral approaches emphasize practicing certain behaviors to bring one's
character in line with God's character. The ascetic life was emphasized over the years as a
way to find closeness with God and understand His ways. Men and women such as
Augustine of Hippo found solitude, meditation and prayer each means to greater intimacy
with God, thereby leading to Godly character and maturity. Having a disciplined life while living in the world is also a behavioral approach to
spiritual maturity. Through the practice of spiritual disciplines such as prayer, fasting,
and meditation a person is more equipped with God's strength of character to confront
the evils of this world. These disciplined practices are also seen as preparation of the
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 4
heart and mind for the life of spiritual growth. In the tradition of Plato, Willard (1988)
saw that" there is an art of living, and the living is excellent only when the self is prepared
in all the depth and dimensions of its being" (p. 4).
There are also several cognitive approaches to spiritual maturity beginning with
James Fowler's theory of faith development. Fowler was one of the first scholars to
suggest that spirituality can be seen as a cognitive developmental process. Therefore he
developed six stages of faith (Fowler, 1981). They described faith as a human focusing on
developing cognitive abilities that may occur through predictable stages. While Fowler's
work focuses on the process of faith moving toward maturity, adults are found in all of
the stages from the first stage of intuitive-projective faith to the sixth stage of
universalizing faith. His holistic view integrates one's relationship with God with one's
service to others providing a framework for faith development. This framework became
the springboard for further cognitive understanding of spiritual maturity.
This cognitive emphasis became evident as the training of the mind to think
became a formal way to train future Christian leaders to become spiritually mature. God's
Word is seen as central to learning and growing. To love God with all your mind is to be
on the road to spiritual maturity. The mind is seen not only as tough and analytic, but
also generous and caring (Moreland, 1997). Cognitive spirituality is driven by knowing
the truth, followed by believing and living the truth, because it will set you free
(John 8:32). It is suggested that a proper understanding of the bible is primary to a
person's spiritual experience.
Another cognitive way to spiritual maturity is to understand or explain an
individual's sin and find a way to overcome it (Hettinga, 1996). Hettinga gives several
examples of how this is taught. If sin is seen as alienation from God, then salvation is seen
as receiving love which will transform a person as they walk with God in love. Or if
blindness is the sin, one needs light so one can walk in the light. If one is captive or in
bondage to sin, one needs grace to walk in victory. A leader may choose in his teaching to
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 5
balance several of these themes or emphasize one preference as the way to train the mind and will. This leads to spiritual maturity.
Another route to spiritual maturity is the approach which includes the affective
response to the need for social justice. For instance, some have followed the heart and
spirit ofMother ofTeressa and have given their lives to the cause of Christian service by
helping care for the sick, poor, and needy. Some have formed organizations such as Food
For the Hungry, while others have experienced spiritual growth by having left their home
and country to feed the hungry, heal the broken-hearted, or set the captive free. For these
people, responding from the heart in service to others is paramount. Scripture adds the
dimension of love to Christian service by suggesting that by love people should serve one
another (Galatians 5:13). This passage argues that spiritual maturity involves freedom of
the believer to choose to serve others in love (Braunius, Ecklebarger, Loth, Newton,
Patterson, & Ross, 1988).
Another avenue to finding spiritual growth is through relationships in small group
communities. This follows the example of Jesus who gathered disciples around him
whom he loved, trained, and sent out. The key to small group ministry, is the authentic
and accountable discipleship relationship between group members. Those who believe in
small groups propose that if Christians are to grow to maturity and have an impact on
society, committed personal relationships of love and trust that support a Christian way
of life must be nurtured (Blattner, 1987). It is this love and trust leading to depth of intimacy in human relationships that is
being suggested by Houston ( 1989) which will also bring depth to relationship with God.
Although created for relationship, the sin of wounding one another is universal, creating a
need for God. In reverse, a rich relationship with God will give depth to other
relationships (Houston, 1989). As a person' s relationship with God deepens, there is a
gravitation toward others. So the nature of one's relationship itself gives greater depth of
spiritual maturity.
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 6
"You cannot have fellowship with the triune God who is fellowship without that fellowship spilling over to others in the same family" (Green & Stevens, 1994) p. 81).
The help that one person gives to facilitate another Christian's growth in
relationship to God is a more recently revived interest in spiritual maturity, specifically
Spiritual Direction. The person who gives this help is called a spiritual director. This
direction has been a source ofwisdom, and growth for thousands of people throughout
church history (Ekman, 1996). Two basic convictions are at the root of spiritual direction
(Jones, 1982). Fundamentally important is a relationship with God. It is believed that
other relationships are impoverished without that primary relationship. Secondly, our
relationships with God, with one another, and with the whole created order are
interrelated. Emphasis in any one of these areas at any time in life will effect all other
areas leading to spiritual maturity. Although not exhaustive, this brief review suggests that the process of becoming
spiritually mature is complex and diverse and can be explained by emphasizing behavior,
cognition, affect and relationship. Many Christians and traditions may have an affinity
toward one or several of these approaches or it could be argued that all approaches are
necessary. Each is a powerful attempt to find a way to move toward spiritual maturity.
The Roots of Spiritual Maturity
There are several reasons it is important to discover the roots of spiritual
maturity. First, seminaries are concerned with turning out mature Christian leaders.
They have long recognized that preparing and equipping men and women for leadership in
Christian ministry includes development in spiritual maturity. Traditionally, it was
thought that spiritual maturity would emerge as students read, believed, and obeyed the
Bible (Kangas, 1998). Therefore, much of seminary training focuses on intellectual
growth and practical application. Yet if the seminary is accountable to the church, it
demands more than the cognitive acquisition of theological insights and practical ministry
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 7
skills (Daniels, 1983). Seminaries are now finding that training mature spiritual leaders
needs to include personal development at cognitive, affective, and behavioral levels.
Entering seminary students today seem to be experiencing more problems than in
earlier times. They are often severely deficient in basic relational skills and experiences
(Botton, King, & Venugopal, 1997). It can no longer be assumed that these students have
had the early childhood, adolescent, and family experiences that are associated with
building supportive relationships, keeping commitments, and resolving conflicts. In fact,
many students come from home environments where models of trust, love, self-esteem, power, and identity were either absent or uncertain (London & Wiseman, 1993). There
should not then be surprise when students have difficulty experiencing trust in God or
expressing compassion toward others, marks of spiritual maturity.
Further, students can profess belief in correct doctrine or theology but secretly
hide sins involving misdirected sexuality, addiction, lying, etc. Rather than integrating
their faith with life, they keep their private life in a very different internal space separate from their beliefs about God and the love and grace that He has for them (Wilkins, 1997a).
In the emptiness of seminary students private lives, they often turn to
performance in school and in ministry hoping to experience belonging, value, and worth.
On the one hand, their successful performance leads to an experience of value and worth
associated with competence. This competence provides a cover-up of an unmet need for
belonging and validation. External experiences ofworth alone seldom bring satisfaction
and contentment. Instead these experiences may breed perfectionism and a continuing
sense that their work is seldom good enough. Eventually, these seminary students may
turn to the pleasures of sin for their much needed relief. On the other hand, if their
performance is not successful, they may feel guilty, blame themselves, and feel depressed.
This guilt cycle recreates the need for the momentary pleasure of sin again and again
(Hart, 1993).
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 8
These characteristics are evident in seminary students who come to graduate
school with a deep sense of emptiness. Students sense their spiritual and relational void
but are unsure how to go about filling it. Many unknowingly come to seminary for the
very purpose of finding mentors who will help bring the missing elements of belonging,
value, and worth into their lives. This leaves them spiritually desperate. They desire to
connect with God but they don' t know how or feel unworthy (Hall, 1997).
The Christian community today is increasingly concerned with the personal life of
their pastors and Christian leaders and their spiritual development. There are two
primary reasons for this concern. The first is the recognition of the extremely high
emotional demands that are placed on pastors today (Henry, Chertok, Keys, & Jergerski,
1991). Pastors are always on call and expected to meet the spiritual and emotional needs
ofthe people in their care. The stresses experienced by pastors resulting from lack of
time include frustration, loneliness, isolation, spiritual dryness, and marital stress (Ellison
& Mattila, 1983; Warner & Carter, 1984). Research suggests that higher levels of
loneliness and lower levels ofmarital adjustment among pastors provide evidence that
pastors (and their wives) experience a diminished quality of life compared to lay persons
(Warner & Carter, 1984). Pastors face other challenges associated with their professional
life. These include: isolation, loneliness, inadequacy, and insecurity (Hall, 1997). They
have many acquaintances but seventy percent report not having someone they consider a
close friend. This may result in lowered self esteem (London, 1993). Consequently,
ministers may respond through unresolved anger, unhealthy needs for approval, and the
instinct to control (MacDonald, 1998). Toe second reason the Christian community is concerned suggested by Warner
and Carter (1984) is that Christian leaders today seem to have lost their spiritual passion
and are experiencing moral failure. Their schedules are extremely busy, often lacking
purpose and a Sabbath for personal renewal. Many experience burnout. Burnout can be defined as a process in which chronic stress from interpersonal contact leads to emotional
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 9
and/or physical exhaustion, decreased productivity, dehumanized treatment of clients,
marital conflict, loneliness, psychosomatic illness, and a substantial decrease in enjoyment
of interpersonal relationships both inside and outside of work (Guy, 1987; Warner &
Carter, 1984). They know their theology but many lack authenticity in their life and
relationships.
These issues of burnout and stress experienced by pastors today are relevant to
seminary training and need to be addressed with future Christian leaders. Seminary
training can prepare students for an emotionally draining lifestyle that tends to inhibit
spiritual development rather than strengthen it.
There are several issues that emerge from this review. One is that
interpersonal/relational deficits are associated with the vast majority of psychological and spiritual problems faced by pastors and thus need to be addressed at an early stage of the
pastor's career (Hall, 1997). Secondly, they seem to be suffering from the same problem
of foundational relational deficiencies that is being seen in students that enter seminary
(Daniels, 1983). Thirdly, it is ironic that the very thing that is emphasized the least in a
pastor's training; namely, relational maturity can be tied to almost every problem the
research indicates is prevalent among pastors (Hall, 1997).
This relational immaturity of pastors is an important problem and the
contemporary conceptualization of spiritual maturity seems to have more to do with
interpersonal relationships and integrity than book knowledge. Spiritual guides for
centuries have told us that without intimate friends, spiritual momentum will not be
maintained. Leaders fail to recognize that their relational deficiencies may be related to
their moral choices. Failing to explore their soul for unwholeness ultimately takes its toll
(MacDonald, 1998). Left unattended, these deficiencies leave leaders prone to
relationship failures as well as ministry failure. This leaves the Christian community
without mature men and women of integrity to lead them.
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 10
Seminaries therefore need to address the relational maturity of stude~ts preparing
for pastoral leadership roles. Not only do future Christian leaders need to understand the
Bible, they need to be able to develop and maintain strong intimate relationships. These
relational attachments will help them develop a deeper walk with God. Intimacy with
God is important for their future success in ministry.
An integration of spiritual and relational maturity is suggested by proposing that
the roots of spiritual maturity are found in attachment and are carried over into
relationship with God and relationship with those we seek to serve. Therefore this study
will explore the relationship between spiritual maturity and attachment leading to
relational maturity. First spiritual maturity will be explored by grounding it in the biblical
foundations of personhood. Relational maturity will then be explored by reviewing the
psychological literature regarding attachment theory. This is followed by an examination
of this theory by explaining the relationship between spiritual maturity and attachment.
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 11
Chapter Two
Literature Review
Introduction In response to the question of the relationship between a history of secure
attachment and seminary students' spiritual maturity, this chapter explores the literature
in both ofthese two areas. It will begin with building the theological foundations of
spiritual maturity with the use of scripture and theological literature. Psychological
foundations of relational maturity with a focus on attachment theory are discussed. An
integration of spiritual and relational maturity is described and theoretical hypotheses
offered.
The Theological Foundations of Spiritual Maturity
Human beings were created to be in relationship with each other and with God.
Scripture confirms this connection in Matthew declaring the human need to be reconciled
in their relationships with others before presenting offerings to God (Matthew 5:24).
Matthew also reports there is a warning to forgive others if the desire is for God to
forgive one's sins. These passages show how interrelated human relationships are with a
relationship to God. This interrelatedness will be explored first by examining the
foundations of personhood. Relationship is the Foundation of Personhood Spiritual maturity begins with the capacity for relationship. Each person receives
this capacity by being created in the image ofGod. God is triune; namely, three persons
in one, therefore relational (Genesis 1:26-27). This image into which all persons are
created describes how humans are like their creator.
Humans are like God and represent Him in a way unlike any other part of
creation. Wilkins ( 1997), suggests five ways humans are distinct from other creatures.
Mentally, humans have the God-given ability to relate to God. Morally, humans are holy
and righteous like God when their behavior conforms to His standards. Spiritually,
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 12
humans have an immaterial spirit which enables them to relate to God on a personal level.
Relationally, they have the ability to enter into healthy intimate relationships with other
humans. And physically, the human's body enables them to be like God, although He is
without a body, He sees, speaks, hears, and moves. Humans are like God in more ways
than all of the rest of creation (Wilkins, 1997b). But primarily how they are alike is in
their ability to be in relationship with others and God himself in an intimate way (i.e.
sociality).
How then does being like God impact our relationship to God and our relationships
to others? Anderson, (1997) draws on the theological arguments ofBonhoeffer in an
attempt to answer this question. Bonhoeffer (1963) suggests that Jesus Christ exists in the
spiritual structure of human sociality as community rather than in the institutional form of
the church. Bonhoeffer wrote that the spirit is necessarily created in community, and the
general spirituality of a person is woven into this net of sociality.
"It will appear that all Christian and moral content;as well as the entire spirituality of (persons), is possible and real only in sociality. Not only do the concepts of sin and of the church become more profound, but a way opens up to a Christian evaluation of community life....Here we have to show that (a person's) entire so-called spirituality, which is presupposed by the Christian concept of person and has its unifying point in self-consciousness.. .is so constituted that it can only be seen as possible in sociality" (pp. 43-44).
If what Bonhoeffer is saying is true, then the reality of spirituality is first of all a
social reality rooted in the nature of human personhood. The social structure of human
personhood is intrinsically spiritual (Anderson 1997). Anderson argues that the Spirit of
God joins the human spirit at the core of its social reality. At the core of the self is human
spirituality which then develops as the self has social relations with others.
Lee (1990) describes the very essence of humanness as inseparable and ontologically
bound to actual relationships to God, to each other, and to all creation. He describes
relationships as not just an artifact of human existence, but the very essence of being
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 13
human. This ability to be in relationship comes from the image of God created in all humanity at birth.
Benner (1988) agrees that human beings relate to God through the same structures
of personality as those through which they relate to other people. He relates God-centered
unity of psychological and spiritual dimensions of one's being as psychospirituality. He
makes the claim that psychological structures are designed to flow from a spiritual direction
and that spiritual maturity demands that maturation occurs simultaneously in the
psychological structures of personality and in the spiritual structures of the soul.
Psychological growth (structural development) may have to precede spiritual growth (direction). This does not mean that all psychological needs must be met or all psychological conflicts resolved before people are capable of responding spiritually...This does not mean that spiritual growth automatically follows psychological growth (Benner, 1988, pp.123-124).
Benner's concepts of psychospirituality implies that we need to try to understand
human spirituality as a whole. This is in agreement with Malony (1988) who also sees a
correlation between positive mental health and spiritual maturity. He argues that
spirituality is the progressive outworking of righteousness or holiness in one' s lifestyle in
relationship with others and restoration of the image ofGod in the inner and outer person.
In summary true human spirituality is experienced and expressed socially in two
ways. In a vertical relationship with God it is expressed in trust and belief. In a horizontal
relationship with a community of others, it is manifested in moral acts, life affirming values,
and service to society (Benson, 1993). This is consistent with Jesus' spiritual maturation
shown to us in Luke 2:52: "And Jesus grew in wisdom and stature, and in favor with God
and men". This is consistent biblically with the first two great commandments first stated
in the Old Testament and reiterated by Jesus:
You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind. This is the greatest and first commandment. And a second is like it: You shall love your neighbor as yourself (Matthew 22: 39-39; Deut. 6:5; Lev. 19:18).
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 14
Although we are created in the image ofGod, human relationships have become extremely distorted and alienated through the effects of sin. Alienation of Relationship Through Sin
The main effect of sin is alienation from God and alienation from others. The
biblical account of the first act of sin depicts this alienation. The first sin in the universe
was an act of free will in which the holy relational character God created was corrupted.
Bonhoeffer's definition of sin describes this corruption as alienation from others.
Sin is the will to affirm in principle oneselfand not the other as a value, and to acknowledge the other only in relation to oneself (Bonhoeffer, 1963).
This definition, although not complete, denotes sin as having its origin in the individual's
will to claim its own interests over that of others. This makes the effects of sin both
social and individual.
This is in agreement with Berkouwer who describes sin as always distorting
relations to God (Berkouwer, 1971). Sin is personal and relational, it is not a defect or an
attribute not performed by man. Important then, is the completeness of how sin is
defined.
Ifwe understand sin basically as the rebellion against God' s goodness and the distortion of the relationship between the Creator and Creature, then the doctrine of"original sin" can only be properly understood when it is seen, not as a given state alone, but in terms of that relationship (Weber, 1981).
This definition was acted out and recorded in the Genesis story of the first man
and woman who enjoyed both security and freedom in a relationship with their Creator.
They were endowed with an ability to form mutually beneficial relationships with others.
They shared an intimate, communicative, and procreative relationship. Most important,
they had an intimate consultative relationship with their Creator (Heinrichs, 1982).
Heinrichs suggests that there was one restriction to their freedom. This was recognition of
their finiteness, limited knowledge, and need for security. This recognition was
particularly true in maintaining an ongoing consultive relationship in regards to their
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 15
delegated tasks with their creator. When they chose against maintaining the consultative
relationship, it cost them their security and they were left to their own limited resources.
This had a damaging emotional impact. It left them with guilt for disobeying, shame from
not meeting expectations, uncomfortableness in God's presence, and the anxiety of being
alone. They had distorted their image ofGod. Anderson (1998) also affirms that sin
creates alienation from our creator.
Through sin, humans have forfeited their participation in the divine Logos, i.e., rational relatedness to God. Humans have become infected with the disease of sin (p. 10).
This original sin in relationship with God and with others continued throughout
the centuries through all generations of people. This is reflected in what the Apostle Paul
calls the "works of the flesh" which are symptoms of sin reflected in social spirituality
labeled in biblical terms as enmities, strife, jealousy, anger, quarrels, dissensions, factions
(Galatians 5:20). These sins in social spirituality today can be seen in the breakdown of
marriage, family, community and church relationships.
Although relationship with God has been distorted, the capacity for Godly
relationship has not been lost because of sin. When people hurt or offend another human
being, they are hurting a person who has been "made in God's likeness" (James 3:9) but
the offender has not destroyed their capacity for relationship. Therefore, our
relationships with God and with others are in need of restoration.
Being conscious of our guilt is not a type of spiritual maturity that leads to
restoration (Pannenberg, 1983). He suggests that "Pietism" in its late revivalistic forms,
made meditation on guilt and sinfulness the basic condition for a relationship with God.
This type of spirituality allows no escape from the alienation experienced when guilty of
sin. Also, there is no establishment of a new identity that can again relate with God
(Pannenberg, 1983). Rather, restoration comes through the death and resurrection of
Christ who thereby broke the power of sin.
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 16
Restoration ofRelationships Through Salvation and Reconciliation
God intervened by sending Jesus Christ to live as God intended; in the security of
an intimate, on-going, and consultative relationship with Himself (Heinrichs, 1982). Jesus
was able to reflect the true character ofGod while relating with humanity. His guiltless
sacrificial life was acceptable to God and applied to the sins of all as evidenced in His
resurrection. Humanity now had the choice of being restored to fellowship with God by
applying Jesus Christ's death to their own sin or of continuing to be estranged from the
person ofGod in whose image they were created. By choosing to believe in the act of
redemption, restoration can begin, and the character of God can again be expressed in
relationships to others (2 Corinthians 4:5-11).
If spirituality is at the core of human personhood, the question to be asked, is
what happens when a person accepts Christ as their Savior and the Holy Spirit enters
into their life?
The Holy Spirit does not supersede the Spirit of creation but transforms it. The Holy Spirit therefore lays hold of the whole human being, embracing his feelings and his body as well as his soul and reason (Romans 8:29) (Moltmann, 1985, pp. 263-4).
Jesus emphasized that when a person receives their new identity in Christ, a new
disciple is born to new life by the Spirit ofGod (John 3:5-8). This means that they have
God's seed in them (I John 3:9, and are a new creation (2 Corinthians 5: 17; Ephesians 2: 1O. Understanding God's supernatural work of implanting new spiritual life in our inner
soul is a mystery to human understanding. This may happen suddenly at the moment of
conversion, or may take place quietly and gradually as we get to know Hirn growing up in
a Christian atmosphere.
Thus humans having the Holy Spirit after receiving Christ, need to maintain
openness to the Spirit of God just as they are open to the spirit of another person
(Anderson, 1997). Spirituality is not a religious instinct, feeling, or practice, rather it is
sociality with God and with others. The teachings of God have to penetrate every area of
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 17
life. These teachings then nurture our relationships with God and with others deepening growth in spirituality. Spiritual formation through the indwelling of the Holy Spirit creates holy effects of healthy social spirituality which are described in Galatians (5:22-23) as love,joy,
peace, patience, kindness, generosity, faithfulness, gentleness, and self control (Anderson,
1997). The restoration of relationship is a lifelong process of spiritual development
guided by the Holy Sprit moving toward spiritual maturity. God's Spirit is motivating the relational component of being created in the image ofGod.
The Psychological Foundations of Relational Maturity
There are a variety of psychological theories that offer different explanations of
relational maturity. The first is the psychoanalytic tradition which is rooted in Freud.
According to psychoanalytic theory, a relationship with others develops as one
internalizes certain early childhood values and standards set forth by primary caretakers.
Behaviors toward others emerge primarily out of anxiety and guilt from transgressions of
the internalized standards (Freud, 1961). Social learning theory is another school of
thought and maintains that relational behaviors are learned through reinforcement which is
experienced externally or vicariously, and through modeling. Social learning theorists do
not consider internal values, cognitions and emotions as determinants of behavior toward
others (Skinner, 1976). A third school of thought is a developmental approach which
suggests that relational behavior develops in sequential stages as a child grows in capacity
for more advanced functioning. Erikson's (1950) progressive model of eight stages begins
with the foundational experience of bonding and the development of trust ending with the
development of integrity in the elderly. From the foundational social connection of
bonding flows the ability to initiate communication with others, resolve conflicts, and
develop commitment in later adulthood. There is a break.down in one's capacity to make
and keep commitments, when mistrust was the result of early bonding.
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 18
Foundations.ofRelational Attachment
A psychological theory which attempts to provide a good model to understand the continuity of developmental stages in human relationships is attachment theory. John Bowlby's important trilogy (1969, 1973, 1980) on attachment, separation, and loss, (the processes by which affectional bonds are forged and broken) is a landmark in
contemporary psychology. He describes how infants are emotionally attached to their
primary caregivers and emotionally distressed when separated from them. Attachment
theory was developed by Bowlby having observed the behavior of infants and young
children who for various lengths of time were separated from their primary caretaker
(usually mother).
The name 'secure base' given to mothers' relationships to their children was
developed by Bowlby (1969). He noticed that separated children go through a series of
emotional reactions. The first involving crying, active searching, and resistance to others'
soothing efforts, was called protest. The second was a state of passivity and obvious
sadness called despair. And the third, was an active, seemingly defensive disregard for
and avoidance of the mother if she returned, called detachment. This series of behaviors
seemed to evolve to protect infants from danger by keeping them close to the mother.
These infant behaviors consist of crying, eye contact, smiling, and snuggling. When
toddlers, they can actively pursue their mother and vocalize their need. Most important for the study at hand is that Bowlby noticed that when children are unafraid and in the presence oftheir mother, they are interested in exploring and mastering the environment,
and establishing contact with others.
The parental bond between parent and child formed by the secure base may be
not only the strongest but also the most important of human attachments (Klaus,
Kennell, & Klaus, 1995). Consequently, any separation is important to a child. The
primary fear of humans is being separated from mother creating the fear of abandonment.
Long separations beyond a half a day in the first two years of life may cause trauma for a
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 19
child. A longer separation may be damaging to the secure base that bonding builds (Klaus et al., 1995).
Bowlby's theory of attachment moved attachment research further in five key
ways (Rutter, 1995). First, it differentiated attachment qualities of relationships from other aspects_of relationship. When anxiety increased attachment behavior, it also
inhibited playful interactions. This differentiation is important so the qualities of
security to other relationships can be tracked. Second, the development of attachments
were placed within the context of normal developmental processes and specific
mechanisms were proposed. Emphasis was placed on the role of attachment in
promoting security and encouraging independence. This differentiated attachment from
dependency. The development of attachment is not just an immature phase of
dependency, but rather a feature that fosters maturity in social functioning. Third, the
development ofattachments was placed firmly in a biological framework. God, having
created humans, must have had a specific purpose in creating this framework. The
process was seen as an intrinsic feature of human development as social beings, rather
than a secondary feature learned as a result ofrewards of feeding (Rutter, 1995). Fourth,
internal working models of relationships were suggested as a means for both carrying
forward ofeffects of early attachment experiences into later relationships and also a
mechanism for change. Fifth, Bowlby made various suggestions about the ways in which
an insecurity in selective early attachments might contribute to the onset of
psychopathology. All of these key features have received substantial support from
empirical research (Belsky & Cassidy, 1994). Bowlby (1979) contended that attachment behavior characterizes human beings
from birth to death. This original attachment forms the working model for a system of
later attachment behavior that is relatively stable throughout childhood. Continuity is due
primarily to the persistence of interrelated mental models of self and social life in the
context of a fairly stable family setting (Bowlby, 1973). Bowlby's studies hypothesized
Attachment and Spiritual Maturity 20
that early attachment formed a framework that persisted through life. This persistence for social cohesion is controlled through affect.
The Role of Affect
This section will explore the role of affect which plays an important role in the
claim that later relationships are strongly affected by early attachment relationships.
Research findings indicate that there are continuities between early attachments and later
peer relationships, so that some reflection of attachment quality is carried forward within
the individual (Belsky & Cassidy, 1994). Ainsworth's research suggested affectional
bonds are a means for explaining how attachment is carried from childhood to adulthood.
Affective bonds are also related to the emotional control system for attachment behavior.
Ainsworth discovered developmental changes in the nature of children's
attachments to parents and others during the years beyond infancy (Ainsworth, 1989).
She noted that different affectional bonds move from infancy to attachment ofchild to
parents, to child-parent attachment during adulthood, and to other affectional bonds
throughout the life span. In describing this, she suggested affectional bonds were not the
same as relationships. These bonds are long lasting and relationships may or may not be
enduring. Affectional bonds are represented in the internal organization of the individual
person, where as relationships are dyadic. Third, a relationship grows out of the total
interaction of two individuals' history, involving much varied content. An affectional bond
she defines as a relatively long-enduring tie in which the parent is important as a unique
individual and is unable to be exchanged with any other.
The affect a relationship produces determines the nature of an affectional bond.
Affectional bonds create a desire to maintain closeness that brings pleasure and joy.
When separation occurs, it tends to cause distress and a desire for reunion. An
attachment is an affectional bond with the added experiential dimension of enough
security and comfort obtained from the relationship creating the ability to move away
from the secure base with confidence to engage other activities. Friendships, marriages, or
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