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The dominance of social media platforms reached new heights in 2020 and
provided various new avenues for the dissemination of information. Carney
(2016), has made some compelling arguments about how technological
developments have both positively and negat ively affected Habermas’ ‘Public Sphere Theory’ (1962). 73 Online innovations have enabled individuals to access the public discourse anywhere, and anytime. 74 Whilst this surge in internet usage
has expanded accessibility to instantaneous information and facilitated
participation in the political discourse, the quality of online discussions can be
distorted by inaccurate content and biased platforms. Online spaces are extremely
susceptible to filter bubbles and echo chambers, which create isolated spheres
where individuals only engage with perspectives that align with their pre-existing
ideas.
Far-right parties and political groups have been recognised as common users
of digital communication technologies, who utilise social media platforms to
assist in the growth of their movements. Since the mid-1990s, media has seen the
online presence of both extremist individuals (such as Neo-Nazis and white
supremacists) and comparatively more ‘moderate’ individuals with strong Islamophobic or anti-institution sentiments. 75
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