ensured stability and land fertility. Egypt’s natural barriers — sea, deserts and Nile cataracts — helped protect it from invasion. The First Intermediate (Middle) Period: instability The collapse of the Old Kingdom led to a century of bloodshed as nobles fought for control, making it easier for foreigners to enter the Nile Delta. During the Sixth Dynasty, Pharaoh Pepi I sent expeditions to Nubia and Canaan. Droughts weakened royal power, and nomarchs (regional governors) competed for control, leading to the period known as the First Intermediate (Middle) Period. During this period, Egypt’s army was mostly made up of peasants. By the time of the New Kingdom, Egypt’s army had become a permanent force, with chariots, archers, infantry (soldiers who march on foot) and foreign mercenaries. Trade Egypt’s relations involved trade and war. Trade began around 6000 BCE and continued through Roman rule (30 BCE–646 CE). From the start of the Old Kingdom, Egypt traded with Nubia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Libya and Phoenicians. Egypt relied on trade for goods and luxuries. Nubia provided gold, ivory and wood, while Egypt exchanged grain, beer and linen. Trade funded Old Kingdom pyramids and New Kingdom temples. Most trade used a barter system, with money introduced after the Persian invasion (525 BCE). Despite trade, Egypt often conþicted with Nubia. In the Middle Kingdom, Egypt took part of Nubia and built forts to control gold routes. They also attacked Libyans and desert tribes to the north.
SkillBuilder discussion Using historical sources 1. Nubians are shown carrying valuable items like ebony logs, leopard skins and gold rings. What does this suggest about the trade relationships between Nubia and ancient Egypt? 2. How do the items being carried, such as giraffe tails and a live baboon, reþect the cultural and economic exchanges between these regions? 3. What can the artistic style and details of this scene tell us about how Nubians were seen in ancient Egyptian society?
SOURCE2 A scene on the wall of Sobekhotep’s tomb shows Africans, likely Nubians, carrying ebony logs, leopard skins, gold rings, giraffe tails and a live baboon.
TOPIC3 Ancient Egypt 107
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