ICT Today Apr/May/Jun 2026

ICT Today Apr/May/Jun 2026 Volume 47, Issue 2

Volume 47, Number 2 April/May/June 2026 THE OFFICIAL TRADE JOURNAL OF BICSI ICT TODAY HOW FMP AND PoE ARE REWIRING THE MODERN WORLD

PLUS: + Weakest Link: The Dangers of Non-Compliant RJ45 + The Role of Ongoing Optical Fiber Testing in Maintaining Reliable Networks

contents 28 Extended-Reach Structured Cabling: Applying Engineered Guidance Beyond the 100- Meter Channel Structured cabling has long provided the foundation for predictable, interoperable communications infrastructure. For decades, the 100 meter (m) horizontal channel defined by ANSI/TIA-568.1 has balanced performance, power delivery, and administrative simplicity across commercial buildings and campus environments. However, facilities are increasingly requiring connectivity in locations that challenge traditional topology assumptions. By Diane Forbes 34 Optical Fiber Connectivity Trends: Practical Termination Choices for High Bandwidth, Low Loss Networks Across the optical fiber market, networks continue to grow more complex as they support an expanding range of devices and data-intensive applications across security, industrial, and enterprise environments. This article examines cabling trends and their effect on approaches used today, including mechanical connectors, splice-on connectors, fusion-splice pigtail cassettes, and pre-terminated solutions. By Megan Wolfe, Katherine Asbeck, Elizabeth Pezeu

April/May/June 2026 Volume 47, Issue 2

FROM THE BICSI BOARD CHAIR 05 Message from the Board Chair By William "Bill" Foy COVER ARTICLE 06 How FMP and PoE are Rewiring the Modern World The hum of the modern building is changing. For more than a century, that hum was the literal 60Hz vibration of AC power pushing through steel conduits filled with copper wire. Now one can walk into a cutting-edge data center, a high-tech hospital, or a "smart" skyscraper today, and they will find a different pulse. It is the silent, efficient, and intelligent flow of DC power delivered through the very same cables that carry our data. By Bob Voss 12 The Weakest Link: Exposing the Dangers of Non-Compliant 8P8C (RJ45) Connectivity The 8-position, 8-contact (8P8C) modular connector, more commonly known as the RJ45, is a highly engineered interconnection system of jacks and plugs with eight equally spaced contacts. Though its history began in the 1960s for telephony, it achieved widespread adoption with the rise of Ethernet networking over twisted-pair cabling. By David Jeskey and Betsy Conroy 20 The Role of Ongoing Optical Fiber Testing in Maintaining Reliable Networks Modern networks run on a simple promise: fast, reliable services that scale on demand. Behind every AI query, cloud storage request, and virtual workload sits a physical layer that must deliver clean, predictable performance – optical fiber. These optical fiber links connect switches, routers, and firewalls to servers and storage arrays. By Chris Porter

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SUBMISSION POLICY ICT TODAY is published quarterly by BICSI, Inc. and is sent in digital format to BICSI members and credential holders. ICT TODAY welcomes and encourages submissions and suggestions from its readers. Articles of a technical, vendor-neutral nature are gladly accepted for publication with approval from the Editorial Review Board. However, BICSI, Inc., reserves the right to edit and alter such material for space or other considerations and to publish or otherwise use such material. The articles, opinions, and ideas expressed herein are the sole responsibility of the contributing authors and do not necessarily reflect the opinion of BICSI, its members, or its staff. BICSI is not liable in any way, manner, or form for the articles’ opinions and ideas. Readers are urged to exercise professional caution in undertaking any of the recommendations or suggestions made by authors. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, without permission from BICSI, Inc. ADVERTISING: Advertising rates and information are provided upon request. Contact our team for information about advertising: Courtney Best Nalls at +1 813.352.0660 or cnalls@bicsi.org; Brian Dailey at +1 813.769.1854 or bdailey@bicsi.org. Publication of advertising should not be deemed as endorsement by BICSI, Inc. BICSI reserves the right in its sole and absolute discretion to reject any advertisement at any time by any party. © Copyright BICSI, 2026. All rights reserved. BICSI and all other registered trademarks within are property of BICSI, Inc.

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THE OFFICIAL TRADE JOURNAL OF BICSI ICT TODAY

From BICSI’s Board Chair William "Bill" Foy, RCDD, DCDC, ESS, NTS, OSP, WD

MESSAGE FROM THE BOARD CHAIR

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BICSI BOARD OF DIRECTORS Board Chair : William "Bill" Foy, RCDD, DCDC, ESS, NTS, OSP, WD Immediate Past Board President : David M. Richards, RCDD, NTS, OSP, TECH, CT

Dear BICSI Community, Welcome to this Installer’s Edition of ICT Today. This issue is focused on the work installers do every day and the challenges that come with it. While new products, systems, and requirements continue to shape our industry, one thing hasn’t changed: good installation work always matters. It matters to performance, to safety, and to the long-term reliability of the systems people depend on. In this issue, you will read about the choices installers are now facing in optical fiber connectivity. There are more cable types, more termination methods, and more situations that call for sound judgment in the field. You’ll also see why testing remains such an important part of the job. A network is only as good as the work that goes into building and verifying it. This edition also looks at the growing use of DC power technologies such as Fault Managed Power and Power over Ethernet. These systems are opening new possibilities for ICT, but they also require a clear understanding of safe installation practices and code compliance. You will also find discussion around one of the most familiar components in our industry, the RJ45 connector. It’s something many people take for granted, but poor- quality and non-compliant products can create real problems. Paying attention to the basics still makes a difference. Another topic covered in this issue is extended-reach copper cabling. As more

connected devices are placed farther from the telecommunications room, our industry continues to look at practical ways to extend reach without giving up reliability. Taken together, these articles are a reminder that installation work is not just about getting a job done. It’s about getting it done right. That takes skill, patience, training, and pride in the work. Thank you for the work you do and for the role you play in moving this industry forward. BICSI remains committed to supporting installers with the education, resources, and community needed to meet the demands of a changing profession. As we continue to live out our vision of being the global authority advancing safe, secure, and reliable ICT infrastructure, we recognize that this vision is built on one installation, one test, and one job well done at a time.

Board Secretary : Luke Clawson, RCDD, RTPM, GROL, MBA Board Treasurer : James 'Jim' Walters, RCDD, DCDC, OSP, RTPM Board Director : William 'Joe' Fallon, RCDD, ESS Board Director : Daniel Hunter, RCDD

Board Director : Miguelangel Ochoa Briceno, RCDD, CT Board Director : Richard 'Shane' Ritter, RCDD, DCDC, RTPM Board Director : Gilbert Romo Board Director : Mark Tarrance, RCDD, RTPM Board Director : Jay Thompson, RCDD Board Director : Kristen Trbovich, RTPM, MBA Ex Officio : John H. Daniels, CNM, LFACHE, FHIMSS, CPHIMS – Chief Executive Officer

EDITORIAL REVIEW BOARD Beatriz Bezos, RCDD, DCDC, ESS, NTS, OSP, CT, PE, PMP Jonathan L. Jew F. Patrick Mahoney, RCDD, CDT PUBLISHER BICSI, Inc., 8610 Hidden River Pkwy., Tampa, FL 33637-1000 Phone: +1 813.979.1991 Web: bicsi.org EDITOR Dan Brown, icttodayeditor@bicsi.org

ICT TODAY NEEDS WRITERS ICT Today is BICSI’s premier publication for authoritative, vendor-neutral coverage and insight on next generation and emerging technologies, standards, trends, and applications in the global ICT community. Consider sharing your industry knowledge and expertise by becoming a contributing writer to this informative publication. Contact icttodayeditor@bicsi.org if you are interested in submitting an article.

With appreciation,

William "Bill" Foy, RCDD, DCDC, ESS, NTS, OSP, WD BICSI Board Chair

PUBLICATION STAFF Clarke Hammersley, Consultant Editor Jeff Giarrizzo, Senior Technical Editor Laureen Young, Senior Technical Editor

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Brian Dailey +1 813.769.1854 or bdailey@bicsi.org

ICT TODAY

April/May/June 2026

How FMP and PoE are Rewiring the Modern World By Bob Voss

of AC power infrastructure. Going forward, there is always going to be AC infrastructure present because it is the best way to address the application and mitigate hazards. However, many applications, especially in the ICT realm, are ripe to take advantage of limited energy technologies. So, what is limited energy? PoE and FMP operate on the principle of limited energy. Instead of just pushing raw power down a line, these systems use “intelligent handshaking.” Before a single watt (W) is delivered, the power source "talks" to the device to ensure it is a valid load.

Because these levels of source energy restriction are proven to avoid hazardous conditions that could result in fire and/or electrical shock. PoE also “negotiates” between the power sourcing equipment (PSE) and the powered device (PD) to determine the appropriate power class for the PD before power is applied. IEEE 802.3 standards for PoE have grown over time to keep pace with the needs of the end device applications they serve. Given the 100 VA upper limit of Class 2 power, the 90 W power level for 802.3bt marks the maximum powering performance for standards-compliant PoE. However, PoE remains a potent ally in modernizing homes and businesses. It is the backbone of the Internet of things (IoT), powering everything from 4K security cameras to LED lighting fixtures. Fault Managed Power “…capable of limiting or shutting down the power source to prevent deviations above normal operating limits to mitigate hazards related to electric shock and fire.” This phrase in NEC Article 100 refers to FMP. Often referred to as Class 4 power (Article 726 of the NEC), FMP takes the safety metrics of PoE and, using similar intelligence, and scales it. FMP is not only extremely safe, but it delivers thousands of watts over long distances – up to 2 kilometers – using lightweight, data-style cabling. The secret sauce of FMP is its ability to monitor for faults in real-time. If a human touches a live wire or a cable is cut, the system detects the change in impedance and shuts down the power in milliseconds—long before it can cause a fire

NFPA 70:2026, Article 100 defines limited energy systems as:

“The equipment and cables of an end-to-end system that are either power-restricted, or capable of limiting or shutting down the power source to prevent deviations above normal operating limits to mitigate hazards related to electric shock and fire.”

The hum of the modern building is changing. For more than a century, that hum was the literal 60 Hz vibration of AC power pushing through steel conduits filled with copper wire. Now, one can walk into a cutting- edge data center, a high-tech hospital, or a "smart" skyscraper today, and they will find a different pulse. It is the silent, efficient, and intelligent flow of DC power delivered through the very same cables that carry our data. We are witnessing a fundamental shift in the physics of power delivery. At the heart of this transformation are two technologies: Fault Managed Power (FMP) and Power over Ethernet (PoE). Together, they are dismantling the traditional silos between "electrical" and

"data" infrastructure, creating a unified ICT landscape that is safer, faster to install, and substantially more flexible. The regulatory world has taken notice. The past two code cycles have brought significant change. In the 2023 NEC, Class 4 power was added – the first new power classification added to the Code in more than 45 years. For engineers, installers, and facility managers, this is not just a technical update. It is a new mandate for how we build the future. The 2026 NEC features a landmark limited energy reorganization, a move that effectively codifies the transition from "dumb" power to "managed" power. shock hazards. A key feature of this robust infrastructure is longevity. Along with longevity, traditional AC infrastructure brings rigidity and inflexibility. If the space served by this powering method requires reconfiguration or repurposing, the AC infrastructure is ripped and replaced. In tenant spaces or dynamic cellular manufacturing environments, the rip-and-replace process comes with costs in both time and productivity. The intent of this article is not to predict the death

With that definition, we can understand how it applies to PoE and FMP:

Power over Ethernet The term “power-restricted” points to PoE. The words should make one think of Class 2 power and the most popular form of Class 2 power, PoE. One of the key factors of PoE that makes it a safe way to transmit DC power is the fact that source power is limited. Class 2 power sources are limited by the NEC to a maximum capacity of 100 volt-amperes (VA) and 60 volts. Why?

Publication Year IEEE Project Reference Power Level (PSE) Example Applications 2003 802.3af 15 W

Mainly voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP) phones VOIP phones, wireless access points, and indoor IP cameras Cisco UPOE TM – forerunner of high power PoE, later ratified as part of IEEE 802.3bt All the above, plus LED lighting, door access controls, outdoor cameras, shades, and others.

THE EVOLUTION OF THE "LIMITED ENERGY" CONCEPT

2009

802.3at

30 W

To understand why FMP and PoE are so revolutionary, it is important to first look at the limitations of the traditional AC grid. Standard electrical systems are built on a "brute force" safety model: thick wire insulation, often run in steel conduits, and circuit protection devices that trip only after a massive surge of energy has already occurred. These methods have a singular intent: prevent fires and electrical

2011

60 W

2018

802.3bt

90 W

TABLE 1 : Overview of IEEE Power over Ethernet (PoE) Standards and Applications.

ICT TODAY

April/May/June 2026

DECIPHERING THE 2026 NEC: THE LIMITED ENERGY REORGANIZATION The 2026 NEC update reflects one of the most significant shifts for ICT infrastructure in a generation. Historically, Article 725 was a catch-all of sorts for remote-control, signaling, and power- limited circuits. The reorganization streamlines this, recognizing that FMP and high-wattage PoE are no longer niche technologies – they are the new standard.

or a lethal shock. It is, quite literally, "touch-safe" high power. FMP systems accomplish this important safety action by constantly monitoring for a variety of faults. This rapid response time is critical for limiting the energy that goes into a fault and therefore mitigating the risks of fire and electric shock. This operating methodology permits FMP to deliver high power. Because it responds to a wide variety of electrical faults quickly, limiting the energy delivered into a fault, there is no need to limit the source energy. Therefore, very high-power delivery occurs safely. FMP systems continuously monitor the FMP power circuit for these faults: • Overcurrent conditions • Short circuits • Line-to-line faults • Ground faults • Arc faults • Any other condition that presents a fire or shock hazard

system, preventing the system itself from being a source of hazard. Given this sophisticated fault- management architecture, FMP provides the safety benefits of a source-limited technology such as PoE while delivering power capacity on par with traditional high voltage systems. In doing so, at least three key benefits are realized: 1. Safer installations : FMP’s capabilities eliminate the need for stringent wiring methods like conduit in Class 1 circuits. Class 4 FMP circuits use the same flexible infrastructure practices as Class 2 circuits. 2. Higher power capacity : Class 2 and Class 3 systems have strict power limits to maintain their inherent safety. FMP systems have no power limit,

A good way to think about FMP capability is “kilowatts over kilometers.” All current FMP systems use pulsed DC power. Normative standards for FMP do not preclude other power formats besides pulsed DC. Pulsed DC power is simply the contemporary. The NEC sets the operating voltage limit for Class 4 power (FMP) at 450 V. That is a staggering difference from PoE’s upper limit of 56 V. Does that mean that PoE has had its day in the sun? Absolutely not. There is no better way to supply communications and DC power to end devices. PoE gets the job done well “locally,” but it needs help to succeed at an enterprise-wide scale. The PoE switches draw sufficient power from the FMP circuits to operate the switching function and power the PoE ports, creating an energy and networking solution with exceptional performance and capabilities. This architecture also delivers exceptional flexibility. The optical fiber uplinks and FMP power cables can go up to 2 kilometers (1.2 mi) in length. Additionally, FMP delivers unsurpassed configuration flexibility to locate network assets where it is most convenient without the restriction of proximity to a telecommunications room (TR) or available building main’s power.

Why the Change Matters

1. Streamlined Design : The new structure clarifies the distinctions between Class 2, Class 3, and the burgeoning Class 4 (FMP) systems. This removes

the ambiguity that often leads to "over- engineering" systems out of caution.

meaning they can deliver hundreds, even thousands of watts over long distances.

2. Simplified Inspections : By creating a more logical hierarchy for limited energy systems, the Code provides inspectors with a clearer roadmap. This

3. Improved efficiency : Class 4 systems transmit power more efficiently over long cable runs, reducing energy loss, a positive benefit for energy costs and sustainability goals.

reduces the friction between installers and authorities having jurisdiction (AHJs), thus accelerating project timelines.

FMP also oversees its own monitoring and control

Feature

Class 2 (Power-Limited)

Class 4 (Fault-Managed)

Safety Philosophy

Passive/Inherent : Limits power at the source so it cannot start a fire

Active/Intelligent : Constantly monitors for faults and cuts power in milliseconds

Max Power Output

100 watts (VA)

Unlimited (typically hundreds to thousands of watts)

Max Voltage

60 V DC/30 V AC (general limits)

Up to 450 V DC/AC (peak line-to-line)

Primary Risk Mitigation

Low energy prevents ignition and lethal shock

Real-time monitoring prevents energy discharge into a fault

Typical Application

PoE, thermostats, security sensors 5G small cells, smart building backbones, EV chargers

Cabling Requirement

Class 2 (CL2) rated

Class 4 (CL4) rated (UL 1400-2)

FIGURE 1 : A network architecture using FMP systems to distribute power and data to remote PoE switches and devices. Source: Panduit

TABLE 2 : Comparison of Class 2 (Power-Limited) and Class 4 (Fault-Managed) Electrical Systems.

ICT TODAY

April/May/June 2026

Reduced Installation Costs In a traditional AC build, every endpoint – every light, every sensor, every camera – requires a licensed electrician to run armored cable (BX or Romex) to a junction box. With FMP and PoE, much of this work falls under the umbrella of low-voltage or limited energy installation. This lowers labor costs and simplifies the supply chain. One can run Category 6 or specialized FMP cables instead of heavy copper and steel conduit. Labor content is reduced because the safety performance of limited-energy technologies makes rigid pathways, such as conduit, optional. Energy Efficiency and the DC-to-DC Advantage Most of our modern devices (e.g., computers, LED lights, servers, and sensors) run natively on DC power. In a traditional building, we take AC from the grid and use power bricks (i.e., transformers) at every device to convert it back to DC. Each conversion loses 10-20 percent of the energy as heat. By delivering DC power directly through ICT infrastructure, conversion losses are eliminated. When scaled across a 50-story building, the energy savings are massive, contributing directly to LEED certification and environmental, social, and governance (ESG) goals. PRACTICAL IMPLEMENTATION: STRATEGIES FOR THE MODERN ENGINEER Transitioning to an FMP/PoE-centric design requires a shift in mindset. Here are the core strategies for successful implementation in the 2026 landscape: 1. Convergence at the Planning Stage The facilities and IT departments can no longer operate in a vacuum. Since the power for the lights is now coming from the same closet as the Wi-Fi access points, the architectural phase must include a unified infrastructure plan. 2. Heat Management in Cable Bundles One of the most critical technical challenges is the thermal rise within cable bundles. When running 90 W PoE or FMP through a bundle of 48 cables, the core of that bundle gets hot. Engineers must reference the new 2026 NEC tables to determine the maximum bundle size allowed based on the

3. Futureproofing : The Code now better accounts for cabling density. As we pack more power- carrying data cables into tight trays, heat dissipation becomes a factor. The 2026 update provides more sophisticated ampacity tables specifically for bundle sizes common in PoE lighting and FMP deployments. To truly appreciate why the 2026 NEC reorganization is such a pivotal moment for the industry, one can look at the physics of safety. Historically, the NEC categorized circuits based on how much damage they could do if something went wrong. The move to the 2026 edition (and the full integration of Article 726 concepts into the broader Article 725/722 ecosystem) marks the transition from “inherent safety” (Class 2) to “active safety” (Class 4).

protocol. The transmitter sends tiny pulses of energy to the receiver. If those pulses are not returned exactly as expected – indicating a short, a ground fault, or a human body touching the line – the system shuts down within a fraction of a second. The Technical Edge : Because Class 4 can operate at much higher voltages (up to 450 V), it suffers far less voltage drop over long distances compared to Class 2. This enables the ability to power a Wi-Fi access point, for example, at the end of a 1,000 ft (305 m) hallway using thin 18 AWG copper, whereas Class 2 would struggle to reach 300 ft (91.5 m) without substantial power loss. WHY THE 2026 REORGANIZATION IS THE FINAL PIECE Before the 2026 NEC update, Class 4 was often treated as an experimental or special category. The 2026 NEC moves these requirements into a unified framework. 1. Unified Terminology : By adopting the term "Limited-Energy Cables," the Code acknowledges that whether running a 10 W sensor or a 500 W

cable’s temperature rating and the ambient environment.

3. Decentralized Power Architecture FMP allows power sources to move closer to the edge. Instead of one massive electrical room in the basement, FMP allows digital power hubs that are distributed throughout the building. These hubs take high-voltage FMP to power PoE switches supplying local devices, reducing line loss and increasing system resilience. THE ROAD AHEAD: A SMARTER, SAFER GRID Looking toward the end of the decade, the integration of FMP and PoE can be expected to accelerate. We are moving toward software-defined power, where a facility manager can reconfigure the power layout of an entire floor with a few clicks of a mouse, rather than a month of electrical rewiring. The 2026 NEC has laid the groundwork. The technology is here. The cost savings are proven. For the engineers and installers on the front lines, the message is clear: the future of power is not just about how much energy we can move – it is about how safely and intelligently we can manage it. AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY : Bob Voss is a distinguished engineer in Panduit’s Corporate Research & Development organization. He facilitates breakthrough technologies through standards leadership and regulatory strategy, serving key roles in NFPA-70, NEMA, TIA, and IEEE 802.3. He also serves as chairman of the board for the FMP Alliance. REFERENCES: • National Fire Protection Association. NFPA 70: National Electrical Code, 2026 Edition . • IEEE Std 802.3 Standard for Ethernet 2022

THE TECHNICAL BREAKDOWN: CLASS 2 VS. CLASS 4

While both Class 2 and Class 4 power are now grouped under the limited-energy umbrella in the 2026 Code, their internal logic is fundamentally different. CLASS 2: THE SAFETY OF LOW LIMITS Class 2 has been a reliable workhorse for decades. Its technical ceiling is 100 VA. The reason is simple: at 100 W or less, the risk of a resistive fault (like a loose wire) getting hot enough to ignite common building materials is statistically negligible. Because the energy is inherently limited, the NEC allows for much more relaxed installation methods. Class 2 cables can share the same trays as data lines, and in many cases, a conduit or specialized grounding is not necessary. It is a definitive example of plug- and-play safety. CLASS 4: THE INTELLIGENCE OF FAULT MANAGEMENT Class 4 is the new frontier. Unlike Class 2, which says, "no more than 100 W," Class 4 says there can be, for example, 2000 W, but only if the system is smart enough to manage it. Under the 2026 NEC, Class 4 systems must meet UL 1400-1 standards. These systems utilize a handshake

FMP light fixture, the installation practices (support, separation from high voltage, and firestopping) are now largely harmonized.

2. Cable Independence : The new Article 722 acts as a one-stop shop for all limited-energy cabling. This eliminates the confusion where an installer had to flip between three different articles only to determine if it is acceptable to put two different types of cable in the same junction box. 3. Hazard vs. Power : The Code now distinguishes between "Power-Limited" (Class 2, 3) and "Fault- Managed" (Class 4). This allows engineers to design systems that have the power density of traditional electrical work with the safety and speed of low-voltage cabling. THE ECONOMIC ENGINE: WHY DC IS WINNING THE OFFICE Beyond the safety and regulatory benefits, the move toward limited-energy technologies is driven by cold, hard math.

ICT TODAY

April/May/June 2026

The Weakest Link: Exposing the Dangers of Non-Compliant 8P8C (RJ45) Connectivity

• Draft : Slight angle on plug and jack surfaces to enable easy insertion and removal

The Judge Harold H. Greene decision (i.e., United States vs. Western Electric Company and American Telephone and Telegraph Company ), which mandated the breakup of the Bell Operating Companies, profoundly influenced the RJ45’s trajectory. In its wake, the FCC codified the RJ45 within Title 47 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 68 (FCC Part 68). This regulation established crucial technical standards for connecting terminal equipment to the public telephone network, ensuring network integrity and enabling informed consumer choices. Manufacturers had to register their products to comply with FCC Part 68. The "RJ" stands for Registered Jack, a term from the Bell System's Universal Service Ordering Code (USOC). In 2001, the FCC delegated registration to the Administrative Council for Terminal Attachments (ACTA), a process still used today for products interfacing with the public telephone network. Concurrently, the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) developed the TIA-968 standard, which outlined the technical criteria in FCC Part 68 and was adopted by the ACTA. In 2008, TIA moved the RJ45’s mechanical and dimension specifications with test procedures and material requirements into ANSI/ TIA-1096-A, Telecommunications Telephone Terminal Equipment Connector Requirements for Connection of Terminal Equipment to the Telephone Network .

These specifications ensure the RJ45’s interoperability and proper mating, maintaining a reliable electrical connection and preventing damage. For example, the standard specifies a contact spacing of 1.02 millimeters (mm) [0.040 inches (in)]) and a crimp height of 6.01 mm ± 0.12 mm (0.237 in ± 0.005 in), which is critical for the insulation-piercing contacts (IPC) to align correctly with the jack contacts. A contact angle of 13 to 24 degrees between plugs and jacks is also specified to prevent signal loss and physical interference. A key aspect of TIA-1096-A is the material requirements. The standard requires the base layer of RJ45 contacts to be phosphor bronze for its durable and stable physical and mechanical properties. The standard further mandates a hard, gold-to-hard gold contact interface, leveraging gold's superior conductivity and corrosion resistance. It also specifies a hardness value to ensure durability across multiple insertion/removal cycles and prevent brittleness in cold environments. Specifically, the gold plating of contacts must meet the following criteria: • Minimum 99 percent pure gold (24 carat), with a minimum density of 17 grams (g)/centimeter 3 (cm 3 ) • Minimum gold thickness of 50 µin. • A Knoop hardness (HK) ranging from 130 to 250, measured according to ASTM E384-05a using a load force of 0.245 N (25 g). • Absence of corrosion products exceeding 0.05 mm (0.002 in) in diameter when tested for porosity and other surface defects per EIA-364-53B. TIA-1096-A also requires a 99.5 percent pure nickel barrier of at least 50 μm in thickness between the gold surface and the phosphor bronze base of the plug and jack contacts. This barrier is crucial for preventing the underlying metal from migrating through the gold plating and causing corrosion while also enhancing gold adhesion and protecting the softer phosphor bronze. The standard does not mandate a specific plating process, provided all requirements are met.

By David Jeskey and Betsy Conroy

The 8-position, 8-contact (8P8C) modular connector, more commonly known as the RJ45, is a highly engineered interconnection system of jacks and plugs with eight equally spaced contacts. Though its history began in the 1960s for telephony, it achieved widespread adoption with the rise of Ethernet networking over twisted-pair cabling. Renowned for its backward compatibility and interoperability, the RJ45 is now the world's most ubiquitous copper interface for network equipment and device connections — from the International Space Station 250 miles above Earth to submarines exploring the ocean's depths, and everywhere in between.

Industry standards define the physical, mechanical, and material specifications of the RJ45 interface, as well as its safety requirements and performance parameters. With Ethernet speeds at 10 Gbps and power over Ethernet (PoE) delivering up to 90 W of DC power, compliance is more crucial than ever. Substandard RJ45s can compromise links that utilize even the best cable, making them the network’s potential weakest link. Non-compliant RJ45 connectivity is alarmingly prevalent, which not only degrades network performance and causes costly downtime, but also poses a risk to people and property.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE RJ45 The RJ45 connector’s origins trace back to the late 1960s at Western Electric, the manufacturing arm of the Bell Operating Companies. A team led by Edwin Hardesty conceived the design to develop a cost-effective, four-conductor telephone handset connector that is easy to disconnect (Figure 1). The original telephony plug used voice-grade stranded tinsel conductors and featured 150 micro inches (µin) of gold on the contact blade.

TIA-1096-A: THE GOLD STANDARD FOR RJ45 PLUGS AND JACKS

ANSI/TIA-1096-A defines RJ45’s physical dimensions, mechanical characteristics, and contact material requirements. This includes tolerances for plugs and jacks, such as height, width, minimum plug and tab length, contact area, size, and spacing. The standard also specifies plug-jack contact requirements, including: • Contact angle : The angle between the plug and jack contacts when latched • Mating force : Peak in-line force during insertion until the latching tab locks • Removal force : Peak in-line force during plug removal with the latching tab unlocked

FIGURE 1 : The original patent for the 4-conductor Hardesty connector. Source: U.S. Patent 3,860,316. January 14, 1975

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April/May/June 2026

mating cycles without exceeding a 20 m Ω increase, including 750 cycles for performance level 1 components and 2,500 cycles for performance level 2 components.

Additionally, TIA-1096-A requires a smooth, burr- free surface at the contact interface, with a maximum surface roughness of 32 μin. The standard also specifies a minimum contact force of 0.98 N (100 g), which represents the pressure exerted between the jack and plug contacts by the jack contact’s spring force. Figure 2 illustrates key TIA-1096-A specifications for the RJ45 connector. From an international perspective, IEC 60603-7, Connectors for Electronic Equipment - Part 7 , aligns with TIA-1096-A in terms of physical dimensions, mechanical characteristics, and contact material requirements for the RJ45. IEC 60603-7 also establishes operating and climatic temperature limits, as well as high-frequency performance requirements for connectors operating at frequencies of up to 100 MHz, 250 MHz, and 500 MHz. For example, it specifies a maximum allowable resistance of 20 milliohms (m Ω ) between mated connectors. IEC 60603-7 also specifies mechanical operations requirements for minimum

plating, others opt for a less expensive mechanical wire brushing method that can yield a more variable surface finish. Extreme instances of inferior quality can result in embedded contaminants, flakes, and microdefects (Figure 3). These defects lead to inconsistent plating thicknesses and can cause gold to wear off the jack contact surface after as few as 10 to 15 insertions and removals, resulting in signal degradation or loss. Dimensional Deviations Precise dimensions for both jack and plug, as outlined in TIA-1096-A, are critical for ensuring proper interoperability and functionality: • Housing Dimensions : If plug housings are too small or jack housings too large, excessive play can occur, causing plug contacts to lift from jack contacts and leading to intermittent signal loss. Conversely, oversized plugs or undersized jacks require excessive force for insertion/removal, which can damage the connector. • Contact force : Maintaining the contact force is critical to prevent electrical discontinuity, especially in high-density patching environments where adjacent connectors might be disturbed, or in environments with vibration or thermal cycling. • Contact Geometry : Correct spacing, size, and depth of contacts are essential. Non-compliant RJ45 connectors often exhibit blade depth issues, failing to meet the specified crimp height of 6.01 mm ± 0.12 mm (0.237 in ± 0.005 in). Blades set too

plating processes. Since gold constitutes most of an RJ45 connector’s cost, it is a common target for cost reduction. Investigations often reveal RJ45 connectors with contact gold purity below 99 percent (i.e., 24 carat) and/or plating thickness less than the required minimum of 50 µin. This can lead to oxidation and corrosion, resulting in intermittent or permanent signal loss. While X-ray fluorescence can measure plating thickness, verifying material compliance to TIA-1096-A requires an independent third-party metal testing lab capable of measuring purity, Knoop hardness, and corrosion. Beyond material composition, inferior quality control can manifest as variations in plating thickness across contacts and out-of-spec surface roughness. While some manufacturers use electropolishing to achieve a smooth, uniform contact surface before "Unfortunately, the market is showing a concerning increase in non-compliant RJ45 connectors, particularly from manufacturers that may prioritize cost minimization."

HIDDEN DANGERS: THE RISKS OF NON- COMPLIANT RJ45s

Adherence to the physical dimensions, mechanical characteristics, and contact material requirements defined in TIA-1096-A is crucial for the interoperability and signal integrity of RJ45 plugs and jacks. Unfortunately, the market is showing a concerning increase in non-compliant RJ45 connectors, particularly from manufacturers that may prioritize cost minimization. Substandard RJ45 plugs and jacks can pose significant risks.

Material and Plating Problems A prevalent issue is the use of inferior materials and

Centerline Contact Spacing 1.016 mm (0.040 in)

Max contact zone width 0.7112 mm (0.028 in)

Centerline Contact Spacing 1.016 mm (0.040 in)

Max width 11.7856 mm (0.4640 in)

Max plug length 23.1140 mm (0.910 in)

Minimum gold thickness 1.2700 µm (50 µin)

Max jack width 11.9126 mm (0.469 in)

Contact angle with plug in jack 13-24 degrees

Max height 8.0010 mm (0.315 in)

Crimp height 6.02 ±0.13 mm (0.0.237 ±0.005 in)

Minimum gold thickness 1.2700 µm (50 µin)

Max front nose 2.3368 mm

(0.092 in) Min tab length 14.6050 mm (0.575 in) Max tab length 15.8750 mm (0.625 in) RJ45 Plug

RJ45 Jack

FIGURE 3 : Electropolishing contacts before plating achieves a smooth, uniform surface, while in extreme cases, mechanical wire brushing results in a variable surface finish with flakes, contaminants, and peaks and valleys that can prohibit proper gold plating and lead to corrosion. Source: Sentinel Connector Systems

FIGURE 2 : TIA-1096-A defines physical dimensions, mechanical characteristics, and contact material requirements for RJ45 plugs and jacks. Source: TIA

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UL 1863 Another relevant standard is UL 1863, Standard for Communications-Circuit Accessories , which includes tests for impact, crushing, flexing, and pulling. UL 1863 requires a UL 94 flammability classification, stating that components using plastic materials to enclose or support current-carrying parts must have a flame class of V-0. It is important to note that UL 1863 certification testing can use a dielectric withstand voltage of either 500 root mean square voltage (V RMS) or 1000 V RMS. Connectivity tested to 500 V RMS can only safely support PoE voltage levels up to 42.4 V DC, while connectivity tested to 1000 V RMS can support voltage levels up to 353 V DC. Since many PoE-enabled devices like wireless access points, light-emitting diode (LED) lights, and digital displays require more than 42.4 V DC, testing to 1000 V RMS is crucial. This higher rating ensures support for all PoE-enabled devices. Unfortunately, manufacturers with RJ45 connectors listed to UL 1863 may not necessarily specify the level of testing, so it is essential to choose products verified for PoE applications. UL 2043 UL 2043, Standard for Fire Test for Heat and Visible Smoke Release for Discrete Products Installed in Air- Handling Spaces , is a critical safety standard required by the National Electric Code ® (NEC ® ) and enforced by local building codes and authorities having jurisdiction. Commonly referred to as "plenum-rated," UL 2043 is required for components used in plenum spaces, which pose a higher fire risk due to air circulation. RJ45 connectivity deployed in the plenum space must be plenum-rated to protect property and lives. Unfortunately, many commodity patch cords on the market are not plenum-rated, primarily because the cable used in the patch cord is not plenum-rated. When using patch cords in the ceiling space, it is essential to verify that the entire patch cord complies with UL 2043, including the cable and the RJ45 plugs on either end.

low risk not making contact, while those set too high can cause increased wear on the contacts, and in extreme cases, deformation of the jack contacts. Out-of-specification jack contact angles are also problematic: an angle that is too steep can reduce the contact area, while one that is too shallow can interfere with the plug housing. • Latch Geometry : The plug’s latch geometry is critical for ensuring the correct contact position. Insufficient latch height or depth can prevent the locking mechanism from functioning correctly, leading to electrical discontinuity if manipulated. A latch that is too high or too deep can make plug removal difficult, causing user frustration and potentially deforming the latch.

RJ45 connectors that do not comply with TIA-1096-A are prone to increased resistance, oxidation, and poor plug-jack alignment. In PoE applications, these issues contribute to the formation of hot spots. In extreme cases, these hot spots can cause thermal runaway, an uncontrolled chain reaction of escalating heat generation and temperature. This can push temperatures beyond the maximum operating limits, potentially causing connectors to melt, damaging network equipment, or even initiating a fire. A significant concern for all RJ45 connectors is the removal of plugs while under PoE load, which can produce an arc within the discharge area (Figure 4). This arc erodes the gold-plated contact surface, and corrosion migrates across the entire contact over time. Continuous unmating under PoE load can eventually cause plug and jack contacts to weld together. Reinserting a plug with corroded contacts can also cause the corrosion inside the jack to slough off, further degrading performance. The design of modern RJ45 connectors should prevent arcing from occurring within the nominal contact area, as corrosion in this area can lead to poor network performance, increased bit error rates, and even nonfunctional links (Figure 5). While no standard currently defines plug removal under PoE load, IEC 60512-99-002, Connectors for Electrical and Electronic Equipment, Tests and Measurements , provides testing guidance to ensure reliability when unmating under PoE load. The latest

revision of IEC 60512-99-002 (Edition 2.1 2025-04) specifies that mated connections cannot exceed a resistance change of 20 m Ω after being subjected to 100 insertion and removal cycles under a load condition of 55 V DC and 2000 mA applied to each conductor. RELEVANT UL STANDARDS: PROTECTING PEOPLE AND PROPERTY RJ45 connectors are also subject to various UL standards, as established by the global safety science leader UL Solutions. These include standards related to smoke density, flammability, and flame propagation. UL 94 A primary safety standard for RJ45s is related to the flammability of plastic materials used for plug and jack housing. UL 94, the Standard for Safety of Flammability of Plastic Materials for Parts in Devices and Appliances , tests the flammability of plastics, with V-0, V-1, and V-2 vertical burn ratings that indicate the material's ability to extinguish a flame after ignition. Of these three classifications, V-2 is the most relaxed, while V-0 is the most stringent. RJ45s that only meet V-1 or V-2 ratings are non- compliant and at an elevated risk of contributing to the spread of flames in the event of a fire. This is especially a concern in PoE applications. When hot spots result in thermal runaway, UL 94V-0 materials play a crucial role in preventing the spread of flames (Figure 6).

AN UNFORESEEN HAZARD: THE PERILS OF MODERN POE TECHNOLOGY

RJ45 connectors were not initially designed for power delivery. However, since the introduction of PoE in 2003, the amount of power delivered along with data has significantly increased: • IEEE802.3af (2003): Type 1 PoE, delivering a maximum of 15.4 W over 2 pairs (up to 13 W at the device). • IEEE802.3at (2009): Type 2 PoE, delivering a maximum of 30 W of power over 2 pairs (up to 25.5 W at the device). • IEEE 802.3bt (2018): Type 3 PoE, delivering a maximum of 60 W over 4 pairs (up to 51 W at the device), and Type 4 PoE, delivering a maximum of 90 W over 4 pairs (up to 71.3 W at the device).

FIGURE 6 : RJ45 plug showing the results of thermal runaway on Pins 7 and 8 caused by a non-compliant RJ45 jack. The use of UL 94V-0 materials allowed the plugs to self-extinguish, whereas materials of a lesser flame rating could have resulted in catastrophic flame spread. Source: Sentinel Connector Systems

FIGURE 4 : Unmating under PoE load causes an arc at the discharge area that can damage the plug and jack contacts. Source: Leviton

FIGURE 5 : RJ45 connectors must ensure that damage from arcing remains in the discharge area and does not occur in the nominal contact area. Source: CCCA

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INDUSTRY CABLING STANDARDS: SETTING THE BAR ON PERFORMANCE The ANSI/TIA-568 suite of commercial building telecommunications cabling standards, along with its international equivalent ISO/IEC 11801, details key specifications such as insertion loss, return loss, crosstalk, and resistance that impact transmission performance. Specifically, ANSI/TIA-568.2, Balanced Twisted-Pair Telecommunications Cabling and Components , defines connecting hardware requirements for a mated RJ45 connection (i.e., plug and jack). Several standards for specific types of facilities reference the ANSI/TIA-568 standards, including data centers (ANSI/TIA-942), industrial (ANSI/TIA-1005), healthcare (ANSI/TIA-1179), and educational (ANSI/TIA-4966). Similarly, ISO/IEC standards for various premises reference ISO/IEC 11801. Both TIA-568.2 and ISO/IEC 11801 standards ensure interoperability among different manufacturers' products and classify performance categories and

classes based on maximum data rates and bandwidth as follows:

TIA-568 standards specify T568A or T568B pin-pair assignments for terminating RJ45 connectors to four- pair cables, recommending uniform pin-pair assignments throughout installations (Figure 7). These guidelines are a key aspect of network cabling installation education and are included in educational content such as BICSI’s latest edition of the Information Technology Systems Installation Methods Manual ( ITSIMM ). RJ45 connectivity that does not comply with ANSI/TIA-568 standards can severely degrade network performance, leading to high bit error rates that cause dropped packets, reduced throughput and speed, and intermittent connectivity. These issues can be catastrophic for mission-critical applications, resulting in service disruptions, monetary losses, and even loss of life. DUE DILIGENCE: BEST DEFENSE AGAINST SUBSTANDARD RJ45 Anyone involved in specifying, purchasing, or installing RJ45 connectivity must be aware of the risks associated with non-compliant products. The market is flooded with numerous unfamiliar, low-cost brands that may not comply, some of which may be counterfeit. With higher frequencies, application speeds, and PoE levels becoming more prevalent, ensuring high-quality, compliant RJ45 connectivity is becoming more crucial than ever. Consider the widespread use of RJ45 connectivity across various critical sectors, including patient monitoring in healthcare, first responder communications, and essential infrastructure for power, water, and transportation. In one instance, non-compliant RJ45 connectivity caused an outage in an air traffic control system.

Integrators in the information and communications technology (ICT) industry who deploy non-compliant RJ45 connectivity could face legal consequences. Purchasing or installing such connectivity can lead to building code violations, lawsuits, substantial fines, or even jail time in some jurisdictions. Furthermore, there is a risk of civil liability if non-compliant RJ45 connectivity causes a fire, resulting in property damage or loss of life. Property owners, building occupants, or even affected families could pursue civil suits based on negligence, fraud, or breach of contract and warranty. The most effective way to mitigate risk is to purchase connectivity from known, reputable sources with an industry track record of delivering quality, standard-compliant products and comprehensive product documentation proving compliance. You can also look for components certified by performance verification programs, such as UL 3992: Outline of Investigation, which verifies the electrical characteristics, power delivery, mechanical aspects, materials, and performance of patch cords terminated to RJ45 connectors, with reference to standards like TIA-1096-A and ANSI/TIA 568.2. AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES : David Jeskey is an instrumental member of the New Technology & Trends Committee for the Communications Cable and Connectivity Association (CCCA), which serves as a resource for well-researched, fact-based information and education on issues and technologies vital to the structured cabling industry. David is a Business Consultant at Sentinel Connector Systems and can be reached at djeskey@sentinelconn.com. Betsy Conroy is an industry freelance writer who works with the CCCA and can be reached at betsy@betsyconroy.com. David and Betsy contributed this article on behalf of the CCCA.

• Category 3 (Class C): Characterized up to 16 MHz to support 10BASE-T transmission systems • Category 5e (Class D): Characterized up to 100 MHz to support 1000BASE-T transmission systems • Category 6 (Class E): Characterized up to 250 MHz to support 1000BASE-T transmission systems • Category 6A (Class EA): Characterized up to 500 MHz to support 10GBASE-T transmission systems ANSI/TIA-568 standards also include recommendations for maintaining the performance of RJ45 connections during the termination of twisted-pair cables. The standard advises terminating according to manufacturer instructions or, in their absence, maintaining cable geometry as close as possible to the termination point of the connecting hardware. The maximum pair un-twist for Category 3 cable is 75 mm (3 in), and the maximum pair un-twist for Category 5e, Category 6, and Category 6A is 13 mm (0.5 in). Additionally, ANSI/

Pair 2

Pair 3

Pair 1 Pair 4

Pair 2

Pair 1 Pair 4

Colors: BL BR

blue brown green orange white

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 W-G G W-GBL W-BLO W-BRBR

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 W-O O W-GBL W-BLG W-BRBR

G O W

T568A

T568B

FIGURE 7 : Eight-position jack pin-pair assignment T568A and T568B. Source: TIA

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