After carefully reviewing classroom observations and achievement data, A2i researchers discovered that it is not just code-focused and meaning-focused instruction that predicts student literacy outcomes. It’s also how instruction is “managed” (who is directing the learner’s attention) either by adults or by the child (see Figure 1 ). Further, though all students need code-focused, meaning-focused, student-managed, or teacher- managed instruction, the amount of time required for each depends upon the combination of students’ reading, vocabulary, and comprehension skills as well as their proximity to the end of the third grade. An example of these recommendations for first-grade students at the beginning of a school year is shown below (see Figure 2 ). The recommendations depicted in Figure 2 show how student entering first grade below grade level require more teacher-managed code-focused instruction compared to their on-level classmates and how students reading above grade level benefit from more time in student-managed meaning-focused instruction.
Meaning-Focused
Code-Focused
Teacher- Managed
Student- Managed
Figure 1: Four Types of Reading Instruction
4 | A2i Summary of Research
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