Chapter 3 North Carolina Species
recolonization from outside can still be expected. Where external refuges are located far away, however, management decisions should be based on the worst possible case: irrecoverable losses of species from the preserve. 3.10.5 Threats and Problems Conservation efforts aimed at protecting native ecosystems offer the best hope for most endangered insect species. Even on lands that have been protected to maintain their natural features, management practices need to take the specific requirements of insects into account. Long-term threats to insects have commonly been related to habitat loss. However, climate change impacts are rapidly becoming the most significant threats from recurring flood events, especially catastrophic events associated with hurricanes and tropical storms, which are significant short-term threats that can result in long term-impacts. Flooding events will wash away or destroy eggs, larvae, and pupae of all insect species. Population growth and subsequent development, especially habitat degradation, fragmentation and destruction, result in impacts to terrestrial and aquatic systems that can affect all insect species. In addition, nontarget impacts of pesticides (insecticides and herbicides) are harming invertebrate (macro and soil dwelling) and vertebrate populations (Larson et al. 2013; Hopwood et al. 2013; Pleasants and Oberhauser 2013; Gibbons et al. 2015) . Introduced pathogens from the commercial bumble bee industry are suspected as potential contributors to significant bumble bee declines throughout North America (Cameron et al. 2011; Colla et al. 2006; Otterstatter and Thomson 2008; Murray et al. 2013) . Declines in bumble bee species may be associated with the introduction of pathogens imported on a species of bumble bee reared in Europe and reintroduced for pollination of crops in the United States (primarily for blueberry, cranberry, and greenhouse tomato production) (Cameron et al. 2011) . Some species—particularly butterflies—are sought after by collectors, and overcollection can be a threat in some situations. A giant skipper species, Megathymus cofaqui , may have been extirpated from the state due to overcollection. Insect collecting is not regulated under state law, although permits are required in some cases for collecting on public lands (e.g., state parks, game lands, national forests). Insects themselves can be the source of the threat and nonnatives can present considerable pest management challenges, especially introduced exotics such as the Gypsy Moth and Hemlock Woolly Adelgid (Hanula et al. 1995) . Fire Ants are a threat to many amphibian and reptile species, especially juveniles as they emerge from their natal habitats (e.g., froglets transitioning from tadpoles). There are numerous insects that pose a threat to agricultural crops while simultaneously providing a food resource for wildlife, especially birds. New nonnative insects, predominantly pest species, frequently enter the state on imported landscape plants or through transportation corridors (i.e., roads, rail, ships).
2025 NC Wildlife Action Plan
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