Chapter 4 Habitats
wastewater can inhibit reproduction and cause feminization of mussels, fish, and some amphibians ( Hayes et al. 2006; Elrod et al. 2003a, b; Huang et al. 2003a, b ). Although little is known about the effects of EDCs, additional studies are being conducted to document the levels of EDCs in discharges, and measures are being identified to reduce or eliminate EDCs from wastewater prior to discharge, should those discharge studies show increases in EDC levels ( Conn et al. 2006; Kim et al. 2007; Kasprzyk-Hordern et al. 2008; Joss et al. 2006; Kolpin et al. 2002; Nowotny et al. 2007 ). An emerging concern is the prevalence of microplastics in aquatic systems and the persistent toxicity associated with the pollutants, especially perfluoroalkylated substances (PFAS) (Scott et al. 2021, Cormier 2020) . The ecological impacts include more than human consumption of contaminated fish. Research has found keystone aquatic species (Alewife, American Shad, Blueback Herring, Striped Bass, and Sea Lamprey) are exposed at all trophic levels (Melnyk et al. 2023) . Other pathways of exposure include waterfowl and turtles that consume contaminated fish (Melnyk et al. 2023) . The implications are not easily understood, and research should be a priority. Phenology Changes. There is a life history link between freshwater mussels and fish, and the mechanisms or effects of phenological disruptions are unknown at this time. Freshwater mussel larvae (glochidia) are dependent on host fish for transformation into juveniles. Temperature cues play a large role in the release of glochidia from female mussels and in the movement and migrations of fish. Therefore, predicted changing temperatures could cause phenological disruptions affecting the reproductive capacity of freshwater mussels. As water temperatures increase, freshwater mussels inhabiting coolwater systems could experience a shift in their range, moving into previously coldwater systems as their host fish move upstream. Storms. Increased storm intensity can lead to flooding and therefore, increased stormwater runoff and erosion. With increased stormwater runoff, there is an increase in loading of sediments, nutrients, and contaminants into streams and potential negative effects on biota, such as fish kills. With a change in the intensity and variability of rainfall, there are potential changes to stream flow patterns, channel hydrodynamics, and the volume of groundwater (Band and Salvesen 2009; US EPA 2010; Bakke 2008) . An increase in the number of tropical events can lead to flash flooding, which causes many of the abovementioned responses. Effects such as increased sediments and contaminants into aquatic systems, in addition to major disruption to channel design and hydrodynamics, potentially upset the physical, chemical, and biological structure of streams (Band and Salvesen 2009) . Heavy rainfall and extreme weather events have impacted the western mountains of the state, resulting in heavy soil erosion, sedimentation, and stream dynamics ( DeWan et al. 2010 ). An increase in the number of tropical events can lead to flash flooding, which causes many of the abovementioned responses and landslides, which are of particular concern in mountainous, high-elevation areas. Landslides lead to increased sediments and contaminants in aquatic systems, in addition to major disruption to channel design and hydrodynamics, potentially upsetting the physical, chemical, and biological structure of streams (Band and Salvesen 2009) .
4 - 14
2025 NC Wildlife Action Plan
Made with FlippingBook Ebook Creator