Chapter 4 Habitats
Historically, the major causes of wetland loss and degradation have been conversion to agriculture, silviculture, and upland development (including road construction). Ditching and draining for agriculture are currently maintained by drainage districts to accommodate existing agriculture and forestry operations. Residential and commercial development continues to create wetland impacts, with approximately 1,700 acres of permitted impacts occurring between 2001 and 2008 (NCDEQ 2021) . In North Carolina, proposed and completed bridge projects cause loss and degradation of SAV habitat, wetlands, and adjacent uplands. However, a lack of updated wetland and shoreline maps makes tracking the changes to this resource difficult. Dredging. Dredging for creation or maintenance of navigational channels and inlets will result in degradation or elimination of SAV habitat. The change in bottom depth, bottom sediment characteristics, and water clarity that accompanies dredged channels prevents or discourages future growth or establishment of SAV. Dredged channels connecting marinas and small docking facilities (including boat ramps) to major navigation channels are other sources of SAV habitat loss and degradation. Vertical shoreline stabilization and docking facilities associated with marinas may also impact SAV (Stevenson and Confer 1978, Funderburk et al. 1991, NCDEQ 2021) . Energy Development. Although wind farms are generally considered a source of green energy, the construction of towers and infrastructure can impact immediate and adjacent marine or estuarine habitats (Byrne Ó Cléirigh et al. 2000 , NCDEQ 2021). Legislative requirements in North Carolina call for utilities to develop renewable and alternative energy resources and will increase the likelihood that offshore wind turbines or oil drilling remains a threat to coastal habitats. There is an increasing interest in the development of wind farms in Albemarle and Pamlico sounds, as well as off the coast of Cape Hatteras and Cape Lookout, as these areas have some of the most abundant wind resources in the state (NCDEQ 2021, Kalo and Schiavinato 2009) . Offshore mining would disturb the ocean bottom, and drill operations would introduce oil and chemical contaminants to the water column. Wind turbines pose a risk of strikes to seabirds and waterfowl. Water Quality. Sources of water quality degradation cover a wide range of structures (houses, businesses, impervious surfaces), facilities (marinas, boat ramps), and conditions (temperature, runoff). Marinas are located immediately adjacent to shorelines where upland pollutants coming from boats, parking lots, and hull maintenance areas can often flow directly into coastal waters (NCDEQ 2021) . Water quality impacts can be caused by nutrient enrichment, turbidity, toxic chemicals, desalinization, marine debris, microbial contamination, DO deficiencies, and high concentrations of toxic metals in the water column and bottom (McAllister et al. 1996, NCDEQ 2021). Of all the sources of sediment loading, sedimentation from agriculture has been cited as one of the largest contributors to water pollution in the southeastern states (SAFMC 1998 , NCDEQ 2021) . Other upland sources of runoff and contaminants also contribute to water quality degradation in estuarine aquatic communities. For instance, development and associated runoff and sewage inputs in the upper end of a watershed and confined animal operations (primarily swine, poultry) and associated nutrient and microbial contamination in the lower end of a watershed contribute significantly to poor water quality (NCDEQ 2021) .
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2025 NC Wildlife Action Plan
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