Environmental Science and Pollution Research
dioctyl ester, and nonanoic acid—along with three photoini- tiator co m pounds, were detected in the sa m ples. A distinct group of six co m pounds was identified that are co mm only used in both paper m aking and printing ink for m ulation (Table 5 and Table S4). This group includes four plasticizers: two phthalate-based (diisobutyl phtha- late and di m ethyl phthalate) and two non-phthalate alter- natives—2,2,4-tri m ethyl-1,3-pentanediol diisobutyrate (KODAFLEX TXIB) and bis(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHT). In addition, two solvent co m pounds were detected: 2-phenoxyethanol and 2-butanone, which serve functional roles in both production processes.
Assessment of potential hazards of identified compounds
The highest concentrations of co m pounds classified as health hazards (HH) were identified in m ixed paper m aterial, up to three ti m es higher than in office paper (Fig. 5). A m ajority of HH co m pounds (12) originated fro m printing inks. A m ong the m were persistent organic pollutants such as bisphenol A (BPA) (Ci mm ino et al. 2020), di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) (Chen et al. 2023), and benzophenone – the latter co mm only used as a UV filter (ECHA 2018). BPA is pri m ar- ily e m ployed in ther m ochro m ic inks for ther m al printing paper, where concentrations can reach up to 16.3 g/kg. In contrast, its levels in office paper are significantly lower, around 280 m g/kg, and only 0.8 m g/kg in journal-derived waste paper (Pivnenko et al. 2016). BPA concentration ranges between 126 and 460 m g/kg have also been reported (Vinković et al. 2023), though in the present study, BPA was detected exclusively in office paper at low concentrations of 6.72 ± 1.2 m g/kg. Due to its potential health risks, the use of BPA as a plasticizer is subject to regulatory scrutiny. In 2024, the European Co mm ission proposed a ban on the use of bisphenol A in plastics intended for food contact. The draft regulation would strictly prohibit BPA in m anufactur- ing food-contact plastics, varnishes, coatings, printing inks, and related industrial applications. In office paper, phthalate plasticizer DEHP was identi- fied at concentrations of 118.8 ± 24.6 m g/kg, which corre- sponds to the concentrations reported for paper recycling (10.0–63.3 m g/kg). Cardboard contains relatively lower concentrations of 10.1–70.5 m g/kg. The highest concentra- tions are reported for packaging (57.7–393.3 m g/kg) and disposable diapers (14.2–322.2 m g/kg) (U.S. Depart m ent of Health And Hu m an Services 2022). Printing inks also con- tain other phthalate plasticizers, dibutyl phthalate (DiBP), which can reach concentrations of up to 120 m g/kg in waste paper (Pivnenko et al. 2015). The DiBP concentrations in the analysed waste paper vary in a large range fro m 22.5 ± 3.7 m g/kg in office paper through 209.8 ± 23.7 m g/kg in jour- nals to 437.1 ± 134.5 m g/kg in cardboard. Benzophenone
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