To what extent was the presence of Egyptian Islam the main reason for Napoleon’s inability to govern Egypt from 1798 -1801?
Leo Tidmarsh
During Napoleon’s governance of Egypt, many severe issues arose, resulting in his inability to control and subdue the population, and to realize his dream of emulating Alexander the Great by becoming emperor of the east. The lack of effective communication within Egypt, and between Paris and the new colony are often regarded as a central reason for this but the presence of Islam within the country was arguably the most important factor. Islam helped to create a culture which was completely opposed to that of post-revolution France and of the west as a whole. Alienation created by the differences in culture and the resistance to French government promoted by the Islamic scholars in Egypt resulted in resentment of French rule amongst the general population. Volney stated that a French army invading an oriental region must fight three enemies: first the British, second the Ottoman Porte (government), and third and most difficult the Muslims. 1 In Napoleon’s expedition, the commander -in-chief never underestimated the sway of Islam in the country, but I shall argue that he never overcame its influence. Furthermore, he was constantly distract ed by Nelson’s navy and failed to understand how the Ottoman Porte would react after his invasion of their territory: in a sense, he failed to win any of these three wars. To a large extent, Napoleon failed to govern and control his colony effectively due to the Islamic values of many in the country. The majority of people in Egypt in 1798 were Sunni Muslims. Of particular importance were the religious scholars, or ulama . These figures had established themselves as experts on Islamic law and, as Crone highlights: ‘to choose one’s imamwas thus to choose the group with which one believed salvation to lie ’ . 2 The Sunni sect of Islam believed their political leader was simply a figurehead: true spiritual guidance was found with the ulama . Indeed, this belief is found in the Quran (6:90): ‘ Those whom God has guided, follow their example ’ . 3 The Sunni majority looked to the scholars for guidance; they believed that these were the people who would literally guide them to heaven, so were completely reliant on them for salvation. Hence the ulama ’s refusal to support, and even actively resist, Napoleon’s rule was an issue. The ulama were unwilling to support Napoleon as without the former Mameluke rulers in charge, the country could not be guaranteed to be run by Muslims, thus challenging their power in Egypt. The enormous influence held by the ulama throughout Islamic society can be seen in the 1911 Constitutional Revolution in Iran, where they, the bazaaris, and the intellectuals formed a coalition to overthrow the Qajar dynasty; the role of the ulama here was to specificallymobilize the general population into uprising against the ruling power – their great sway within the Islamic community ensured its success. 4
Although under Ottoman rule in name, about two dozen Mameluke beys ruled Egypt when Napoleon arrived. These men, descendants of slaves from Turkey, taken to Egypt in about 1230, held power over
1 Said 1978: 81. 2 Crone 1996: 18. 3 The Qur’an 6:90 tTranslated by M.A.S Abdel Haleem). 4 Varol 201: 133.
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