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M. N. A. MOHAMMAD TAIB ET AL.
Figure 4. NCC (a) and NFC (b) on a paper sheet (Perdoch et al. 2022).
small diameter of the nano-sized fibers, which can fill the gaps between the larger cellulose fibers, resulting in improved uniformity and smoothness. The bursting strength is generally impacted by multiple factors, such as fiber length and fiber bonding. For instance, when NFC was introduced at a concentration of 8%, a significant improvement of 12.5% in the burst strength was observed, illustrating the influence of NFC addition on this property (J. Kasmani and Samariha 2019). This improvement is attributed to the high slimming coefficient and the physical interac- tion between the nanofibers. The presence of nanofibers, with their large specific surface area, facilitates physical interactions among the fibers, leading to an increase in hydrogen bonds and a reduction in the gap between fibers. These factors collectively strengthen the bonds between fibers, enhancing the overall effectiveness of the fiber network. This enhanced bonding prevents fiber sliding and promotes greater stability within the fiber network (Tajik et al. 2016). The tensile index quantifies the potential durability of paper when subjected to tensile stress, highlighting its ability to withstand such forces. The quality of the fiber and the structure of the fiber network are vital factors influencing these properties (Iglesias et al. 2020). Enhancing the interconnectivity between fibers, achieved through processes such as increased refining or wet pressing, will result in better tensile index. When the dimensions of nanofibers obtained from nanocellulose decrease, the incorporation of nano- cellulose causes a rise in the specific surface area of cellulosic fibers. As a consequence, a greater number of hydroxyl groups abundantly available on the surface of the nanofibers, enabling the formation of numerous hydrogen bonds with adjacent nanofibers (Meng and Jun Wang 2019). This leads to the creation of a vast nanofiber network and increases the fiber tensile strength. This phenomenon accounts for the observed 10.9% increase in tensile properties when incorporating 8% of NFC. The tear strength is influenced by various parameters, including fiber length, fiber strength, and bonding strength between the fibers. The introduction of lignocellulosic nanofibers enhances the level of hydrogen
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