Russia and China in Africa: Interests, In uence, and Instruments of Power
15. Dan Whitman, “A Movie We’ve Seen Before.” ↑ 16. Ibid. ↑ 17. Ibid. ↑ 18. Ibid. ↑ 19. Thomas Naadi, “Russian mercenaries accused of cold-blooded killings in Mali — BBC speaks to eyewitnesses,” BBC, November 25, 2025, https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crmx7x3yjyko ↑ 20. Eric Olander, “China Tops Favorability Rankings in Africa, Outpacing U.S. and EU, New Survey Shows,” June 5, 2025, https://chinaglobalsouth.com/2025/06/05/china-most-favored-global-power-in-africa/ ↑ 21. Defense Analysis Team, “The New Scramble for Africa: How Russia and China Are Reshaping the Continent,” Defense.info, August 31, 2025, https://defense.info/highlight-of-the-week/the-new- scramble-for-africa-how-russia-and-china-are-reshaping-the-continent/ ↑ 22. Dr. Woldeamlak Bewket, Professor at Addis Ababa University, interview with the author, August 29, 2022. ↑ 23. Sergio Carciotto and Ringisai Chikohomero, “Chinese labour practices in six southern African countries,” Institute for Security Studies, August, 2022, https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/Mono- 207.pdf ↑ 24. Dr. Patrick Maluki, Professor at the University of Nairobi, interview with the author, September 1, 2022. ↑ 25. Edward Hallett Carr, – (Harper-Collins, 1964), 1–21. The Twenty Years’ Crisis 1919 1939: Introduction to the Study of International Relations ↑ 26. D. Robert Worley, (University of Nebraska Press, 2015), 286. Orchestrating the Instruments of Power: A Critical Examination of the U.S. National Security System ↑ 27. Ibid, 278. ↑ 28. Ibid, 277. ↑ 29. Ibid, 281. ↑ 30. Diplomat posted to the US Embassy in Nairobi, Kenya, name withheld by request, interview with the author, September 2, 2022. ↑ 31. Boris Bondarev, “Lavrov Returns to Africa,” 20, no. 91 (June 6, 2023): Eurasia Daily Monitor https://jamestown.org/program/lavrov-returns-to-africa/ ↑ 32. Will Brown, “The bear and the bot farm: Countering Russian hybrid warfare in Africa,” European Council on Foreign Relations, October 22, 2025, https://ecfr.eu/publication/the-bear-and-the-bot-farm- countering-russian-hybrid-warfare-in-africa/ ↑ 33. Mohammed Dahiru Lawal, “Inside the AI-driven propaganda elevating Burkina Faso’s leader, Ibrahim Traore,” Dubawa, June 16, 2025, https://dubawa.org/inside-the-ai-driven-propaganda-elevating-burkina- fasos-leader-ibrahim-traore/ ↑ 34. Dan Whitman, “A Movie We’ve Seen Before.” ↑ 35. Ibid. ↑ 36. Stefano D’Urso, “Many Questions Still Unanswered After Wagner’s Attempted ‘March On Moscow,’” The Aviationist, June 27, 2023, https://theaviationist.com/2023/06/27/wagners-march-on-moscow/ ↑ 37. Frederic Wehrey and Andrew S. Weiss, “The Right Way for America to Counter Russia in Africa,” July 9, 2024, Foreign A airs, https://www.foreigna airs.com/africa/right-way-america-counter-russia-africa ↑ 38. Dan Whitman, “A Movie We’ve Seen Before.” ↑
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