Applied Behavior Analysis & Autism: An Introduction
Suzanne M. Buchanan, Psy.D., BCBA-D Mary Jane Weiss, Ph.D., BCBA-D
This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information concerning the covered subject matter. It is published with the understanding that the authors and Autism New Jersey are not engaged in the rendering of legal, medical, psychological, or other professional services. If expert advice or assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.
First printing: February 2006 Second Printing: August 2006 Third Printing: April 2008 Fourth Printing: April 2010
Contents
1 3 7 9
Forward Introduction: Why ABA? What is ABA? How Behavior Analysts Approach Teaching ABCs of Behavior What Principles and Methods Comprise ABA?
10 11 12 14 16 17 18 20 23 25 26 27 28 30 32 33 34 36 39 41 43 45 45 46 47 49 51 52 55 57 61 63 64 69
Motivation Reinforcement
Shaping Prompts Modeling (Imitation Training) Discrete Trial Instruction Verbal Behavior Natural Environment Training Picture Exchange Communication System Incidental Teaching
Pivotal Response Training Task Analysis and Chaining Token Economy Activity Schedules
Precision Teaching with Rate-Building Functional Assessment and Analysis Antecedent-Based Interventions Positive Behavior Support Generalization and Maintenance
Evaluation of ABA Programs
Data collection and analysis Demonstrating a functional relation
Running an Intensive ABA Program ABA and the Family
Siblings Running a Home-Based ABA Program
ABA as a Profession Myths & Facts Summary Resource Section References Give Us Your Feedback
Forward
Both authors have been profoundly touched by many individuals with autism and their families. We have partnered with parents to teach their children and learned from the challenges and joys they experienced while raising a child with autism. Many of these parents consistently requested a written overview that defined and described methods used within Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) programming. Parents wanted this information during their initial search to better understand this treatment approach, and during their journey to increase their knowledge and abilities. Unfortunately, only a few such publications have met this need and they cover slightly different topics. This book is intended for those parents and professionals who want an overview of Applied Behavior Analysis and the meaningful changes it can make in the lives of people with autism. The book is divided into brief segments that focus on specific topics. Within each section, readers can expect a description or definition of the topic, examples from everyday settings, and references for further information. References are largely drawn from the professional literature with an emphasis on those that have a high degree of scientific validity. We hope this book is helpful to you and we welcome your feedback for future revisions. It is important to emphasize that this book is an overview and the resources listed in each section and at the end should be referred to for a more comprehensive understanding of the discussed topics. The authors gratefully acknowledge the peer review of Dr. Sandra Harris and the contributions of Tamara Bannon, Jenna Miller, Rebecca Hernandez, and Chigusa Weekley to this manuscript.
Suggested citation: Buchanan, S. M., & Weiss, M. J. (2010). Applied behavior analysis and autism: An introduction . Robbinsville, NJ: Autism New Jersey.
Introduction
Why ABA?
Glossary challenged previous notions that people with autism could not be educated or that they could not lead meaningful and independent lives. The children who participated in early and intensive ABA programming learned many new skills and substantially reduced their problematic behavior. Some of these children learned so much that today it is hard to tell them apart from typically developing children. ABA programming for young children with autism. The results of these studies While there is still much to learn about how early behavioral intervention affects young children with autism, there are some powerful messages from the studies conducted so far (Green, 1996). Several state and federal agencies have heard these powerful messages and agree that there is solid evidence that early and intensive ABA intervention can produce comprehensive and meaningful improvements for a large proportion of children with autism (for example, Maine Administrators of Services
There are many autism treatments available, and most of them claim promising results. How do you know if these claims are true? Is there concrete evidence that the treatment works? Choosing the right treatment is in the best interest of your child and should be worth the commitment and resources. So the question is: why ABA? There are many anecdotes that appear to support numerous treatments. ABA stands out because its foundation is the collection and review of direct observational data. There have been hundreds of well-controlled studies published in the professional literature documenting ABA’s effectiveness with learners with autism (Matson et al., 1996). Most of these studies have focused on one or two specific behaviors that required intensive teaching or treatment. Some have focused on the learners’ behavior as well as the therapists’ and the parents’ behavior during academic and social interactions. Approximately ten studies have explored the long-term effects of intensive
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of this study showed that children in an intensive ABA program produced significant improvement across all four areas compared to the children who received eclectic and non-intensive treatments. The study even found that the children who received non-intensive early intervention showed a regression. What about children with autism who enter treatment at a later age? There is some evidence that these children also benefit substantially from ABA instruction when compared to children who participated in other interventions of similar intensity (Eikeseth, Smith, Jahr, & Eldevik, 2002). The researchers examined the progress of 25 4-7 year olds who received either intensive behavioral treatment or intensive eclectic treatment in public school settings. The results indicated that children who participated in intensive behavioral treatment made large improvements across all measured skill areas (i.e., cognitive, visual- spatial, language, and adaptive behavior skills) as compared to those children who received intensive eclectic treatment. The same is likely to be true for adults with autism. While there are well-documented effects of behavioral assessment and intervention strategies on improved functioning for adults with autism (McClannahan, MacDuff, & Krantz, 2002), there are limited long-term data on intensive programs for adults. However, it is clear that many adults experience real and substantial gains come from ABA intervention. Thus, it stands to reason that ABA remains a central and effective component of services for individuals of all ages with autism. Early and intensive ABA programming is cost effective and potentially life changing for individuals and their families (Jacobson, Mulick, & Green, 1998). Why not turn to science and get the best available treatment? When you review the results of the research, you will find ABA.
for Children with Disabilities (MADSEC) Autism Taskforce, 1999; New York State Department of Health, 1999; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999). Additionally, the United States Congress commissioned a panel of autism experts to publish a state of the research on autism and provide recommendations for public policy and future research (National Research Council, 2001). While they recognized the contribution of a behavior-based approach in autism treatment, they pointed out the lack of comparison studies of among this and other popular treatments. The results from this type of study would shed more definitive light on the question of which treatment was the best. They stressed the importance of conducting studies that directly compared interventions so that educators and parents could select the most effective treatment for an individual with autism. Since then, two comparison studies have been published in peer-reviewed journals. While there are limits to how much information can be gleaned from only two studies (described below), the results tells us more about the effectiveness of ABA. How does ABA compare to other treatments? Howard, Sparkman, Cohen, Green, & Stainslaw (2005) published a study on the effects of three different treatment approaches used within early intervention. Sixty-one young children with autism spectrum disorders received one of three treatment procedures: a) intensive behavior analytic intervention, b) intensive eclectic intervention which was a combination of popular methods, or c) non-intensive public early intervention. The children were an average of 34 months old when they entered the study. The study measured each child’s skills before and after a 14-month intervention in the areas of: a) cognitive, b) non-verbal, c) receptive/expressive language, and d) adaptive skills. The results
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Introduction
Resources
Celiberti, D. A., Buchanan, S. M., Bleeker, F. N., Kreiss, D. S., & Rosenfeld, D. (2004). The road less traveled: Charting a clear course for autism treatment. Autism: Basic Information (5th ed., pp. 17-32). Robbinsville, NJ: Autism New Jersey. Eikeseth, S., Smith, T., Jahr, E., & Eldevik, S. (2002). Intensive behavioral treatment at school for 4- to 7-year-old children with autism: A 1-year comparison controlled study. Behavior Modification, 26 , 49-68. Green, G. (1996). Early behavioral intervention for autism: What does research tell us? In C. Maurice (Ed), G. Green, & S. C. Luce (Co-eds.). Behavioral intervention for young children with autism: A manual for parents and professionals (pp. 29-44). Austin, TX: PRO-ED. Howard, J. S., Sparkman, C. R., Cohen, H. G., Green, G., & Stainslaw, H. (2005). Comparison of intensive behavior analytic and eclectic treatments for young children with autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 26 , 359-383. Jacobson, J. W., Mulick, J. A., & Green, G. (1998). Cost-benefit estimates for early intensive behavioral intervention for young children with autism--general model and single state case. Behavioral Interventions, 13 , 201-226. MADSEC Autism Taskforce. (1999). Executive summary . Portland, ME: Department of Education.
Matson, J. L., Benavidez, D. A., Compton, L. S., Paclawskyj, T., & Baglio, C. (1996). Behavioral treatment of autistic persons: A review of research from 1980 to the present. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 17 , 433-465. McClannahan, L. E., MacDuff, G. S., & Krantz, P. (2002). Behavior analysis and intervention for adults with autism. Behavior Modification, 26, 9-26.
National Research Council (2001). Educating children with autism.
Committee on Educational Interventions for Children with Autism. C. Lord & J. P. McGee (Eds.) Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. New York State Department of Health Early Intervention Program. (1999). Clinical practice guidelines: The guideline technical report – Autism/pervasive developmental disorders, assessment and intervention. Albany, NY: New York State Department of Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1999). Mental health: A report of the surgeon general. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Mental Health Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Mental Health.
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Introduction
What is ABA?
ABA makes meaningful changes in people’s lives through the use of procedures that have been demonstrated to work. The following description of ABA was adapted from Green (1996). Behavior analytic treatment for autism uses reinforcement in structured and natural environments to help individuals learn new skills. Skills ranging from simple to complex are broken down into small, measurable units and systematically taught. A high-priority goal is making it enjoyable for the learner. Through carefully planned guidance and reinforcement, the learner is more likely to exhibit appropriate behavior during and after the teaching interaction. In contrast, problem behaviors are not reinforced. Some analysis may be necessary to determine the function(s) and reinforcers for these behaviors to develop an effective intervention plan.
On a more technical note, Cooper, Heron, and Heward (1987) define ABA as:
the science in which procedures derived from the principles of behavior are systematically applied to improve socially significant behavior to a meaningful degree and to demonstrate experimentally that the procedures employed were responsible for the improvement in behavior. (p. 14) As we said above, ABA makes meaningful changes in people’s lives through the use of procedures that have been demonstrated to work. During the last fifty years, Behavior Analysis has been referred to in a number of different terms, including behavior modification, behavior management, contingency management, positive approaches, and operant or Skinnerian
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has two main branches: experimental and applied. The experimental analysis of behavior is a field of study in which animals and humans participate in experiments and researchers observe how they behave and learn in different situations. The results of these studies are then used to inform Applied Behavior Analysis, ABA, which is the service part of the discipline. In other words, this type of behavior analyst works with people to improve their behavior and quality of life. ABA programs are based on empirical research, include the direct observation and measurement of behavior, and utilize antecedent stimuli, positive reinforcement, and other consequences to produce behavior change. ABA is a well-developed discipline among the human service professions. It has a mature body of knowledge, established standards for practice, distinct methods of service, recognized experience and educational requirements for practice, and identified sources of requisite education in universities.
psychology. Most of these terms fail to fully capture the nature and dimensions of contemporary behavior analysis, and bring with them associations that are either inaccurate or misleading. Here is some accurate information. Behavior Analysis
Resources Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Green, G. (1996). Early behavioral intervention for autism: What does research tell us? In C. Maurice (Ed.), G. Green, & S. Luce (Co-eds.). Behavioral intervention for young children with autism: A manual for parents and professionals (pp. 29-44). Austin, TX: PRO-ED. Newman, B. (1999). When everybody cares: Case studies of ABA with people with autism. NY: Dove and Orca. Newman, B., Reeve, K. F., Reeve, S. A., & Ryan, C. S. (2003). Behaviorspeak: Glossary of terms in applied behavior analysis (ABA). NY: Dove & Orca. Newman, B., Reinicke, D., & Newman, L. (2000). Words from those who care: Further case studies of ABA with people with autism. NY: Dove and Orca.
Additional Resources These two resources describe the
characteristics of Applied Behavior Analysis. While they do not contain information specific to autism, they are quite relevant and provide an accurate and thorough picture of the concepts that guide the field. Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1968). Some dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 91-97. Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1987). Some still-current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 313-327.
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What is ABA?
How Behavior Analysts Approach Teaching
history of experiences, this source may yield only limited and insufficient information about how to increase a person’s behavioral skills. 3. Immediate environment – the events that are happening during every moment of our lives. This includes the setting, other people present and their behavior, objects, activities, routines, resources, etc. Behavior analysts see the immediate environment as the major cause of behavior. They collect very specific information about what happens before and after a behavior. They then use this information to make appropriate behavior more likely and inappropriate behavior less likely. Parents and teachers can have a tremendous impact on behavior because they are such a large part of the child’s immediate environment. So, the more you know about maximizing learning, the more you can change a person’s behavior.
The behavioral teaching approach takes into account a few factors, such as the student’s current level of performance, the skill acquisition and behavior reduction goals, and some assumptions about what causes behavior (performance) to occur. ABA views the immediate present as the key to comprehending current behavior, and uses information about the past cautiously (for example, to understand how a behavioral pattern developed over time). Causes of Behavior 1. Genetic explanations - With the human genome project complete, we now know more about how genes affect behavior. Unfortunately, this information is not yet helpful in producing a medical treatment or cure for autism. 2. Past experiences (sometimes called reinforcement history or learning history) – Behavior analysts study how behaviors are acquired and maintained through reinforcement. While it is important to understand a person’s
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ABCs of Behavior
Let’s look more closely at how behavior analysts study the interaction between the immediate environment and behavior. One of the main things that behavior analysts do is examine the ABCs: Antecedents, Behavior, and Consequences. Antecedent : what comes before a specific behavior Behavior : the behavior itself Consequence : what happens after a specific behavior This analysis helps to pinpoint what may trigger a behavior and assists in identifying what consequences keep a behavior going. Example : Teaching Exchange Teacher says, “Get your lunchbox. It’s time to eat.” ( Antecedent ) Student walks to cubby, gets lunchbox, walks to seat at table, and sits down. ( Behavior ) Teacher says, “Terrific work, Johnny. You got your lunchbox. You’re ready to eat.” ( Consequence )
Both the antecedent (the instruction) and the consequence (eating lunch) influence whether the behavior will happen again. Example : Challenging Behavior Teacher says, “Let’s clean up. It is time for circle.” ( Antecedent ) Student throws blocks, lies on floor, and screams. ( Behavior ) Teacher says, “We need to
clean up our toys,” and helps child to put blocks in the box. ( Consequence ) Both the antecedent (the
instruction) and the consequence (not allowed to continue playing) influence whether the behavior will happen again.
In real situations, other factors such as the learner’s motivation and setting events are taken into account. These simple examples are presented for illustration purposes of the ABC analysis.
What does this mean for me? We can understand how and when
behaviors occur by examining antecedents and consequences. We often can change behaviors by changing what we do immediately before and immediately after behavior.
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What Principles and Methods Comprise ABA?
Motivation
a learner engages in a certain behavior, and is very relevant to understanding challenging behaviors. When we understand what a person is motivated to obtain (attention, a desired object, a break from instructional demands), we can reorganize the environment. We can provide motivating things in the absence of challenging behavior and teach the learner ways to appropriately request them. Technically speaking, motivation is often called an “establishing operations” (EO) or a “motivational operation” (MO). They are events with to properties: 1. a reinforcer-establishing effect that establishes what is reinforcing in the moment 2. an evocative effect that evokes a particular response In simple terms, an EO determines what is wanted and influences what the individual does to get the desired item. Here’s an example with an adolescent with autism. Jason has been outside on a hot day. He gets thirsty and desires water (the reinforcer-establishing effect). We now have established water as a potential reinforcer. The second property, called an evocative effect, is demonstrated when Jason does something to obtain that reinforcer (water). He might take his teacher’s hand and lead her to the water fountain. He also might give her a picture of a glass of water. Thus, the same reinforcer could evoke different response at different times or for different people. Responses that have been successful in the past are more likely to occur than other responses.
Motivation is the heart and soul of ABA. Behavior analysts want to know what a person is motivated by, what interests her, and what she experiences as fun. The old cliché is true: different strokes for different folks. Perhaps you enjoy a good meal of Italian food while another person prefers a backyard barbeque. The same is true for learners with autism. Motivation is individually determined and best understood by observing the person and his/her choices. It also is important to keep in mind that motivation can change on a moment-to-moment basis. Even though you like a good barbeque, you probably wouldn’t want one every night of the week. Here’s another example: sometimes you prefer to listen to calm music and other times to loud, upbeat music. To maximize the learner’s fun and performance, behavior analysts encourage him/her to make choices and incorporate these preferences into the teaching interaction. This moment-to-moment analysis of the learner’s motivation can seem like a lot of hard work, which goes above and beyond the standard curriculum and typical teaching strategies. So, why is this important and worthwhile? When equipped with this information, behavior analysts can offer fun activities, interesting objects, and desirable items to the learner. The learner then associates the instructor with those fun and desirable items and activities. This often is called pairing yourself with reinforcement. It is the essence of making learning fun and of building a positive association with the instructor. The instructor becomes the source of fun and desirable items, the person who gives squishy balls, teddy grahams, hugs, high fives, trips to the playground, and giggles.
Motivation also is about understanding why ABA Principles & Methods
12
Motivation
Here’s another example. A child sees a popular toy from a favorite movie in the toy store. She may want it. This is the reinforcer-establishing effect. Once in the toy store, she may request the toy because such requests have been honored in the past. This is the evocative effect. If requests have led to obtaining desired things, the likelihood of requesting is high in these situations. This is true for both appropriate and inappropriate behaviors used to request desired items. Therefore, this concept also can be used to understand how challenging behaviors emerge. ABA instructors are very interested in EOs, and in maximizing motivation in general. Understanding EOs significantly increases the success of instruction. A student is new to the learning environment. The teacher puts out an array of enticing toys and foods. She samples some and plays with some, and waits for the learner to indicate an interest. As the learner reaches for an item, she immediately grants access to the item. She also offers praise, hugs and attention while the learner eats the snacks and plays with the toys. She is pairing herself with rewards and working to identify EOs. She wants to know what the learner wants. Eventually, she will ask the learner to engage in a brief task before granting access to the desired item.
Resources
Delmolino, L., & Harris, S. L. (2004). Incentives for change: Motivating people with autism spectrum disorders to learn and gain independence. Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House. Michael, J. (2000). Implications and refinements of the establishing operation concept. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33, 401-410. Sundberg, M. L., & Partington, J. W. (1998). Teaching language to children with autism or other developmental disabilities. Pleasant Hill, CA: Behavior Analysts, Inc.
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ABA Principles & Methods
Reinforcement
Behavior analysts knowingly use reinforcement to increase behavior. However, we all use reinforcement every day, in our dealings with other people. We may not call it reinforcement, but it is happening all the time! Reinforcement
involves 1) the systematic and immediate delivery of a consequence (following a behavior) and 2) an increased likelihood that the behavior will happen again. In fact, we can only know that something is a reinforcer after we watch its effect on behavior over time. Simply providing a preferred item contingent upon a behavior will not necessarily result in an increase in behavior under similar conditions in the future.
Type 1 Reinforcement
Type 1 reinforcement (also referred to as positive reinforcement) involves the addition of something desirable, such as praise, hugs, a gummy bear, and stickers. Example 1 A teacher is instructing Thomas to point to objects. She puts a ball, a cup, a shoe, a spoon, and a hat on the table. She instructs him to “Touch the shoe.” Thomas touches the shoe. The teacher enthusiastically says, “Hooray! You touched the shoe. Now you get to put on your shoes and go outside.” • Behavior: following an instruction by touching an item • Consequence: received praise and a chance to go outside and play • Future effect: makes following Example 2 Johnny sees a friend eating a cookie. He points to the cookie. His mother then gives him a cookie. • Behavior: pointing to a desired item (cookie) to ask for it • Consequence: received a cookie when (and only when) he asked for it • Future effect: makes pointing to a desired item (cookie) more likely to occur the next time he sees something he wants instructions more likely to occur the next time someone asks him to do something
Type 2 Reinforcement
Type 2 reinforcement (also referred to as negative reinforcement) involves the removal of something undesirable. Example 1 We turn off an alarm clock to stop the loud repetitive sound. • Behavior: touching “off” button on clock •
Consequence: removing undesirable alarm sound
•
Future effect: makes “touching- off-button” behavior more likely to occur the next time alarm sounds
Example 2 At McDonald’s Playland, a child is overwhelmed by the loud noises. The child requests to leave, saying “car, car.” The family leaves. • Behavior: requesting to go home •
Consequence: exiting reduces exposure to undesired noise Future effect: makes requesting to go home more likely to occur the next time child experiences high noise level
•
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ABA Principles & Methods
Reinforcement
Both positive and negative reinforcement increase behavior by making the learner’s life better. A note on negative reinforcement: The common definition and the ABA definition of negative reinforcement are different. As previously mentioned, the ABA definition refers to an increase in behavior when something annoying is stopped or prevented because of our behavior. In contrast, the common use of the term is a synonym for punishment. These terms can lead to confusion. The important piece to focus on is the learner’s behavior and what happens following the behavior. If the learner repeatedly behaves in ways that result in escape or avoidance of something undesirable, negative reinforcement is in effect. Readers are referred to text books on ABA for further information and clarification. It can be tempting to think of preferred items as reinforcers. Yet, before doing so, it must be demonstrated that the contingent use of the preferred item is the reason for a behavior increase; only then can the item be called a reinforcer. For learners with autism, some items and activities are more likely to be reinforcers than others. Primary reinforcers serve a biological function and include food, water, warmth, and sexual stimulation. Initially, learners with autism may be more responsive to primary reinforcers. Secondary reinforcers gain their potency because they were paired with primary reinforcers or other established secondary reinforcers. There are four types of secondary reinforcers: • tangible reinforcers such as trinkets and toys, • activities-oriented reinforcers such as playing a game and going to the movies,
• generalized reinforcers such as tokens and money that allow access to a range of other primary and secondary reinforcers. Effective programming makes use of both types of reinforcement to maximize the learner’s progress. The behavior analyst’s goal is to move toward the type and schedule of reinforcement that will maintain the behavior in typical settings.
Resources
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hall, R. V., & Hall, M. L. (1998). How to select reinforcers (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: PRO-ED. Leaf, R., McEachin, J., & Harsh, J. D. (Eds.). (1999). A work in progress: Behavior management strategies & a curriculum for intensive behavioral treatment of autism (pp. 23-36). New York, NY: DRL Books. Miller, L. K. (1996). Principles of everyday behavior analysis (3rd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
•
social reinforcers such as physical contact and verbal praise, and
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ABA Principles & Methods
Shaping
Shaping is a way to reinforce improvement in behavior. Shaping is used to gradually teach the learner how to do something better. Over time, an instructor rewards attempts that look more like the desired behavior. Thus, the learner is encouraged through reinforcement to exhibit more appropriate behavior. While shaping behavior can be a slow process, it can be quite effective if done correctly. This process requires that the teacher has both intimate knowledge of the learner and the ability to shift gears based on the learner’s performance. One of the positive effects of shaping includes decreasing frustration by providing feedback to the learner that he/ she is on the right track. Learning becomes more rewarding because there are many opportunities for reinforcement along the way. When shaping behavior, there are several things to remember. First, shaping is both an art and a science. The teacher has to respond to the learner’s performance. On a moment-to-moment basis, she must match the amount of the learner’s effort with the amount of reinforcement. On a broader scale, a teacher must set her requirements based on the learner’s performance throughout the day. For
example, if a child is feeling ill, it is a good idea to maintain the program and not require additional effort on this particular day. Second, the learner will become skilled more quickly when all of his/her teachers communicate and agree. This is to say that consistency across teachers, parents, and others is an important component of the shaping process. All instructors must communicate to understand the current teaching plan. When everyone implements the same protocol, the learner more efficiently acquires skills. This emphasis on consistency is also valuable for all other teaching programs. Behavior analysts often describe their teaching method as “shaping” a particular behavior. For example, they may say that they are shaping vocal sounds. At first, a vocal approximation of a word would be reinforced, for example “ba” for “ball.” As the child becomes more fluent in making sounds, the teacher reinforces only vocal approximations that sound like the target word. Behavior analysts also shape other behavior, such as compliance, by asking a learner to follow one easy instruction. When the learner performs that skill well, the teacher expects more. To follow the above examples, she may ask the child to say, “want ball,” or to follow two instructions.
Resource
Foxx, R. M. (1982). Increasing behaviors of persons with severe retardation and autism. Champaign, IL: Research Press .
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ABA Principles & Methods
Prompts
Generally, we use more obvious prompts when teaching a new skill and more subtle prompts when the learner has mastered a skill but needs a reminder. Types of prompts include: • physical or hand-over-hand assistance • gestural such as pointing • modeling or demonstration • visual such as a picture • textual such as written checklist • verbal such as “What do you want?”
Prompts are defined as extra cues or hints that help the learner to know what to do in a particular situation or time. Prompts are things we do to increase the likelihood that learners will make the correct responses. Whenever a learner is being taught something for the first time or has not yet mastered a skill independently, prompting should be used to ensure correct responses and to prevent errors. Even after a learner has mastered a skill, he/she may still need prompting to respond within an appropriate amount of time and in new situations.
Example 1 The instructor says, “Do this,” while clapping her hands together. She then reaches over to take the child’s hands and makes a clapping motion with them. This physical prompt ensures that the learner correctly imitates the teacher. Example 2 A mother and a child are in a toy store. The mother says, “You can pick out a toy.” The child does not respond. The mother then shows him two toys and verbally prompts him, “Do you want Winnie the Pooh or Elmo?” The child grabs Elmo. The mother notices that the visual and verbal prompts made his response more likely.
Resources
MacDuff, G. S., Krantz, P. J., & McClannahan, L. E. (2001). Prompts and prompt-fading strategies for people with autism. In C. Maurice, G. Green, & R. M. Foxx (Eds.). Making a difference: Behavioral intervention for autism (pp. 37-50). Austin, TX: PRO-ED. Van Houten, R. (1998). How to use prompts to initiate behavior. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
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ABA Principles & Methods
Modeling (Imitation Training)
When we are presented with a new assignment, we are likely to have a lot of questions about how to start the project. You may ask yourself, “What do I need to do here?” You may feel like you want to see exactly what needs to happen. We all like to watch others do something when we are learning it for the first time. (Think about learning to ride a bike or draw a happy face. These things are much easier to do if you have watched someone do it.) Typically developing children watch and imitate others all day long. A model is any antecedent (before the behavior) stimulus that is identical in form to the behavior. A model is a stimulus that the learner imitates. If we want the child to clap his/her hands, and we clap our hands while saying, “Do this,” we have provided a model. As mentioned in the previous section, a model is a type of prompt. Models are used in imitation training to help learners copy our behavior. Modeling is a powerful instructional tool that also can assist learners to master complex skills. For example, modeling can be used to teach appropriate behavior in social situations. A teacher might instruct a learner to “Do what your friends are doing,” when he/she looks lost during a transitional time while other students are cleaning up materials. Peers are a wonderful source of learning by modeling. Peers in a classroom can model appropriate ways to pay attention, complete an assignment, ask for help, and interact in all kinds of ways. Usually, we think of modeling as the imitation of people who are physically present. However, modeling also can be taught using videotapes. Video modeling has been shown to be a highly effective
technique for teaching play skills and some social skills. A learner might watch videotaped sequences of children playing imaginatively with a dollhouse, and then practice what was viewed. Because of the central importance of learning by observation, imitation training often is a major focus of early instruction. Learners need to be able to imitate very simple tasks, sequences of actions, and novel actions. When a learner has demonstrated the ability to widely imitate and to imitate novel actions, they often are said to have achieved generalized imitation (see page 45). This is an important goal for all learners. A child with this ability will be able to learn from classmates and other peers. Many ABA programs spend a lot of time during the initial phase of instruction teaching learners how to imitate. Later phases of instruction incorporate a variety of experiences to help the learner imitate in more real life situations. Another consideration is that learners with autism may not be initially motivated to learn these skills. Instructors should pay careful attention to the quality, quantity, and variety of reinforcement provided for progress. Much of children’s learning develops through imitation as they repeat what they hear and do what they see. Imitation is a valuable developmental achievement. The ability to consistently and fluently imitate others offers many benefits in all aspects of life.
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ABA Principles & Methods
Modeling (Imitation Training)
Resources
Buggey, T. (2009). Seeing is believing: Video self-modeling for people with autism and other developmental disabilities. Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House. Krantz, P. J., MacDuff, G. S., Wadstrom, O., McClannahan, L. E., Dowrick, P. W. (1991). Using video with developmentally disabled learners. In P. W. Dowrick, Practical guide to using video in the behavioral sciences (pp. 256-266). Indianapolis, IN: John Wiley & Sons. Leaf, R., McEachin, J., & Harsh, J. D. (Eds.). (1999). A work in progress: Behavior management strategies & a curriculum for intensive behavioral treatment of autism. New York, NY: DRL Books. Striefel, S. (1998). How to teach through modeling and imitation (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
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ABA Principles & Methods
Discrete Trial Instruction/Discrete Trial Teaching
Discrete trial instruction (DTI) or discrete trial teaching (DTT) has historically been the primary instructional method used in ABA intervention for children with autism. It is a very systematic and methodical way of teaching and is supported by a history of success in teaching skills across all areas. This technique is well suited to individuals with autism because it makes instruction very clear to the learner. Discrete trials are comprised of several components. 1. an SD, or a discriminative stimulus (an instruction) 2. a response (what the child does in response to the instruction) 3. a consequence (feedback to the child about his/her response) There has been some research on the most effective ways to teach when using discrete trials. Here is a summary of several of those issues. 1. Teach in an errorless way. We know that children with autism have a tendency to repeat errors, so it is important to prevent errors and to interrupt errors whenever possible. (It is rare that anyone could learn a skill without any MYTH DTI is just doing the same thing over and over and over again. FACT Historically, people did do DTI as blocks of trials, typically working on the same target behavior repetitively. Children were asked to do the same thing many times
errors. The point here is to minimize the errors that a learner may make.) 2. Mix in new material with older, known material. Technically, this is called task interspersal. For interspersal to be effective, you must mix in a new item with items that learners know very well (have already mastered). We know that learners learn more rapidly when taught in this way. It also is more naturalistic than asking a child to do the same thing many times in a row. 3. Collect data on learning progress. This may be done on a trial-by-trial basis, or through probe data collection techniques (in which the teacher takes data only on some of the trials). Discrete Trial Instruction is sometimes described incompletely or inaccurately. This is because DTI has been conducted for many years, and the definition of “best practice” DTI has changed along with the evolution of the field of ABA. Therefore, some people’s views of DTI are only partly accurate because they do not have the most up-to-date information. Here are some of the most common misconceptions that people may have about DTI. (most often 10 times) in a row. While we know that repetition helps learning and that children with autism require many trials of instruction to learn new things, we also know that learning is more efficient if we vary what we ask the child to do. Best practice now dictates that we slowly intersperse new items with things the child knows very well.
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ABA Principles & Methods
Discrete Trial Instruction/Discrete Trial Teaching
Behavior analysts are always aware that the ultimate goal is for the child to be able to perform this skill in a variety of natural situations. At first, a discrete trial program may have only a few specific strategies and over time become “looser” as additional circumstances are introduced into the teaching interaction. All learners need to be taught when to perform and when not to perform certain behaviors. Discrete trial instruction that incorporates strategies to enhance generalization can be a successful way to achieve these goals. MYTH DTI doesn’t include child choice because the teacher determines the tasks, items used, and rewards. FACT This was historically true of DTI programs. However, intensive instruction has evolved. Today, learners are offered many choices in instruction. Preferences are considered when determining rewards to be offered and activities on which to work. In fact, preferences are continually assessed, to ensure that the learner is maximally motivated to participate in instruction. Furthermore, learners often choose the order of tasks they will work on, location of work, objects to be used for an activity, etc. MYTH Kids who experience a lot of DTI become little robots who know how to be compliant but not how to be creative. FACT At the beginning of a program, teachers ask the child for specific responses, and may train in a very specialized way. Thus, the
MYTH DTI is very slow paced. FACT
Historically, DTI was slower in pace than other types of instruction. This is because it was usually done with trial-by-trial data recording, which was noted during the time between trials. The number of learning opportunities is reduced when several seconds pass between trials. How slowly or quickly you provide instructions, often called pacing, has become increasingly important in ABA intervention. DTI can be done at a rapid rate. To maximize learning opportunities, probe data collection can replace trial-by- trial data collection. Other modifications in data collection also can assist the teacher in maintaining the pace of instruction. MYTH DTI doesn’t result in generalization; kids don’t transfer their learning into everyday situations. FACT Discrete trial instruction initially is used to build basic skills and early discriminations. (Discrimination means knowing when to and when not to do something.) Sometimes, this phase of instruction is very methodical and does not contain much programming for generalization. However, for some learners, generalization is built into the program from the onset. And for all learners, generalization becomes a focus of instruction within DTI. It may be necessary to begin teaching a specific skill under very specific circumstances (same instruction, same therapist, and same reinforcer) to make it easier for the child to first learn the skill.
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ABA Principles & Methods
Discrete Trial Instruction/Discrete Trial Teaching
patterns (monotone voice or scripted conversation), and social behaviors (one track conversation). To varying extents, this may be a prominent characteristic that people observe about them. A goal of behavioral intervention is to constantly expand the skill repertoires of people with autism. Most importantly, anyone who knows someone with autism can tell you that he or she is creative in many different ways! MYTH As long as you have a curriculum, anyone can effectively conduct DTI. FACT A comprehensive curriculum is certainly an essential component of a child’s education. However, it is not enough to ensure a successful academic experience. You need a great teacher to be a great student. Everyone knows the value of a good teacher who can make the material come “alive.” Teachers who use an ABA approach are always looking for ways to maximize the student’s progress by analyzing the student’s performance and the elements in the teaching situation (the teacher’s behavior, other students’ behavior, the setting, the materials used, etc.). It is this analysis of the teaching process that is most likely to result in the most beneficial outcome for the student. The analysis tells the teacher important information so that he/she can continue effective practices and discontinue ineffective practices on an ongoing basis.
child may behave in specific ways because those behaviors have been reinforced. However, this only represents an early phase of instruction necessary for some learners. It always is a priority to naturalize both instruction and the child’s behavior. Yes, it is true that individuals with autism exhibit repetitive behaviors in the form of motor mannerisms (hand flapping), object manipulations (lining up toy cars), language
Resources
Leaf, R., McEachin, J., & Harsh, J. D. (Eds.). (1999). A work in progress: Behavior management strategies & a curriculum for intensive behavioral treatment of autism. New York, NY: DRL Books. Lovaas, O. I. (2002). Teaching individuals with developmental delays: Basic intervention techniques. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
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ABA Principles & Methods
Verbal Behavior
Many people in the autism community have been talking about “Verbal Behavior.” Is it a part of ABA? Different from ABA? Better than ABA? What is Verbal Behavior? There sure has been a lot of verbal behavior about Verbal Behavior! To address these questions, here are some quick answers.
3. The analysis of verbal behavior is concerned with the functions of language including requests,
comments, and conversation. Verbal Behavior is a system of classifying language that behavior analysts find very useful, both from a theoretical perspective (how we think about language) and from a practical perspective (how to teach language). The behavioral psychologist, B. F. Skinner, developed the Verbal Behavior classification system in 1957, and wrote about it in his book Verbal Behavior. Skinner was concerned with expressive language, which also can be described as direct communication with others. There are several Verbal Behavior categories especially relevant to teaching learners with autism. Examples follow each category.
1. Given that ABA is the science of
understanding and improving human behavior, ABA includes the analysis of verbal behavior. 2. Verbal behavior is synonymous with communicative behavior. Any interaction in which information is being conveyed is verbal behavior. Thus, verbal behavior includes both vocal means (saying a word) and non-vocal means (pointing and gesturing) of communication.
Verbal Behavior Classifications
Echoic - imitating a sound, word, or phrase • Instructor says, “Say, ba” as she looks at a ball. Learner says “ba.”
Mand - making a request or demand • Learner reaches for a toy train (gesture) and says “choo choo” (speech). Tact - labeling something in the environment • A teacher holds up an eraser, and says, “What is it?” The learner says, “eraser.” Intraverbal - back and forth conversational exchange; talking about things or people not present • Joey says, “I saw a movie last night.” Henry says, “What movie did you see?” Joey says, “Finding Nemo. It’s about a fish.” Henry says, “Cool. I saw that one, too. It was good.”
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ABA Principles & Methods
Verbal Behavior
It is important to recognize that Verbal Behavior is not an instructional methodology, but a framework for thinking about language development. This classification system is important because it also identifies different reinforcers for each type of verbal behavior. For example, the reinforcer for requesting something you want should be receiving that item you requested. This classification of language has been the framework of several interventions or teaching methodologies for learners with autism, including the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS; Bondy & Frost, 2001; see page 28) and Natural Environment Training (NET; Sundberg & Partington, 1998; see page 27). The success of both intervention packages in building communication skills is impressive, and may be due, in part, to this attention to categories of communication.
Resources
Bondy, A. S., & Frost, L. A. (2001). A picture’s worth: PECS and other visual communication strategies in autism. Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House. Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. East Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century- Crofts. Sundberg, M. L., & Michael, J. (2001). The benefits of Skinner’s analysis of verbal behavior for children with autism. Behavior Modification, 25 , 698-724.
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ABA Principles & Methods
Natural Environment Training
Mand Training A child reaches for a bottle of bubbles. The instructor says, “What do you want?” The child says “ba.” The instructor gives the
Sundberg & Partington (1998) have taken this classification system and created an intervention package to systematically teach language. They have added other areas of curricular emphasis and recommended a variety of instructional methods to be used along with this classification system. Their model of intervention is called Natural Environment Training (NET), which has received a great deal of attention in recent years. Sometimes intensive ABA programming using both the VB classification system and elements of NET is referred to as a Verbal Behavior program. Other components of instruction common in NET include 1) short inter-trial intervals also known as rapid pacing, 2) errorless learning, 3) task interspersal, 4) child directed choice of materials, 5) probe data collection, and 6) sign language as a nonverbal means of communication training.
child bubbles. Tact Training
The instructor holds up train and says, “What is it?” The child says “train.” The instructor says, “choo, choo” and pretends to be a train, inviting the child to do so, too. Intra-Verbal Training (Beginning) The instructor says, “The cow says…” The child says “moo.” The instructor smiles and says, “moo” back to the child. Intra-Verbal Training (Advanced) The instructor asks, “Where did you go on vacation?” The child answers, “I went to the beach.” The instructor says, “Ooh, I love the ocean!” The child says, “Me, too! And I made a sandcastle with my dad!”
Glossary
Inter-trial intervals – the amount of time between teaching trials Errorless learning – using instructions and prompts that will ensure the learner’s accuracy Task interspersal – mixing known tasks with new tasks Child choice – using the materials and activities that the child chooses and desires Probe data collection – occasional data collection to obtain an estimate of how often a behavior is happening; also a sample of how well a learner is performing a particular task Sign language – using gestures to communicate
Resources
Partington, J. W., & Sundberg, M. L. (1998). The assessment of basic language and learning skills: An assessment, curriculum guide, and tracking system for children with autism or other developmental disabilities. Pleasant Hill, CA: Behavior Analysts, Inc. Sundberg, M .L., & Partington, J. W. (1998). Teaching language to children with autism or other developmental disabilities. Pleasant Hill, CA: Behavior Analysts, Inc.
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ABA Principles & Methods
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