UNIT: NORTH AMERICA BEFORE EUROPEAN CONTACT
Trade and Economics in North America
WEEK 8
AMERICAN FOUNDATIONS
Archaeology: How Do We Know?
There is no cell phone footage. There are no documentaries. There’s not even a photograph to prove that native people had been living in the Americas for thousands of years before European explorers arrived. How do we know that people were here for so long? How do we know anything about their lives? People leave clues that help us understand them long after they are gone. Sometimes, ancient peoples left clues about how they saw the world in stories passed down to their descendants. They also left behind innovations we still use today. Some of these include crops, like corn, and medicines. People left behind objects they made, too. We call these archaeological evidence. An archaeologist studies things left behind by people who lived a long time ago. Some objects, called artifacts , get covered by earth or water for thousands of years. Many become fragile. To avoid damaging them, archaeologists rarely use their hands to observe artifacts. Instead, they use dry brushes and other tools to clean them. This helps make sure that they won’t remove things like leftover paint and food from the artifacts. For example, stone tools that archaeologists find can reveal traces of foods that native peoples ate. Archaeologists often recognize patterns. They may see differences between earlier objects and later, more advanced ones. They may find evidence of trade by tracking the movement of similar artifacts. For example, Knife River flint comes from what is now North Dakota. Artifacts made from this flint have been found throughout the western United States. They have also shown up as far east as Ohio and Pennsylvania. This evidence suggests that native peoples traded the flint all across the country.
One of the oldest archaeological sites we know of in North America was found in Cactus Hill, Virginia. Here, archaeologists found evidence of a people known to have lived about 14,000 years ago. As archaeologists dug deeper, layer by layer, into the earth of Cactus Hill, other artifacts were uncovered. These pointed to another group of people, dating back around 18,000 years. What piece of evidence suggested that a different group of Native American s had lived there? The tools were not the same as the ones found in the earth above them. That means that 4,000 years earlier, people camped and cooked and fished in the same place as those who came after them. Archaeology has proven that the early peoples who lived in the Americas were skilled. They built complex societies, traded goods with other ancient peoples, and had vibrant, sophisticated societies in America for thousands of years.
But archaeologists don’t only study objects. At archaeological sites , or places where there is evidence of past human activity, they also study structures and human-made features. Structures like native peoples’ homes can suggest whether a certain group had more of a close-knit community or a complex, sprawling society. Features like fireplaces or storage pits can also help scientists imagine what daily life in ancient cultures was like. Archaeologists study these artifacts carefully. It’s important to show respect to people from the past and their descendants. Sometimes when archaeologists dig, they unearth sensitive things. They may find places where people are buried. Some people think burials should be examined for evidence. Others think they should be left alone. New technology has helped archaeologists with this problem. Today, they can often scan areas without digging. Not having to dig allows them to show more respect for burial places. When combined with other forms of evidence, artifacts can tell a story.
ESSENTIAL QUESTION How were family and community structures of North Native American s similar to and different from one another? How were family and community structures of Indigenous people of North America similar to and different from one another?
Trade Routes For thousands of years, Native American s operated huge trade networks to get what they needed from other people in the Americas. For example, people in what is now North Dakota quarried a hard stone called flint near Knife River. The stone was so valuable in ancient times that 4,000 years ago, it was being traded far from the quarry. Copper and obsidian have also been discovered far from their natural locations. This proves a trade system existed. Another example of trade comes from the Hohokam tribe in what is now Arizona. The Hohokam traded buffalo hides for seashells. Neither resource comes from Arizona! The hides came from tribes on the Plains. Plains tribes often traded bison robes, dried meat, and tallow with other tribes for corn and squash. The shells
the “highways” for tribes. If rivers were the highways, paths were like the smaller “roads” we use today. Paths crossed all over North America. Native peoples made and named other paths. One well-known route stretched from the forests by Lake Erie to the South Carolina coast. This trail, called the Trading Path, appeared on maps in the 1700s. Parts are still marked today. Trails often followed the “military crest” of the ridge. Trails ran alongside, but not on the ridge tops. This way, a person could travel along the trail without being seen by those on the other side of the ridge. Many Native American s disciplined themselves to
came from the Mojave tribe in California. By trading with both groups, the Hohokam became middlemen within a larger trade route. Middlemen took goods from one group to another during trade. Trade was an essential part of the government. Agreements had to be made in order to trade safely. But not all trade was peaceful. Sometimes tribes would go to war to control trade routes and resources. Eventually, peace would be made with chiefs making agreements for their bands. Rivers and Trails Rivers were extremely important when native people needed to travel. Many traveled by canoe on major rivers like the Mississippi, Ohio, Columbia, and Missouri. Some canoes could haul thousands of pounds of goods for trade. Rivers were
Trade, Barter, and Money How people use resources to meet their wants and needs is the basis for economics. There are goods and services needed or wanted in a community. Meeting the wants and needs of the community is considered a trade network. The Native American s had resources they used to meet their wants and needs. We see this in how the homes and shelters of the tribes varied depending on what natural resources were around them in the environment. Tribes on the coast did not have the same resources as the people of the Great Plains. The same is true about their daily lives and their art. To meet their wants and needs, people would trade. One tribe might have a good year farming and raising maize. Another tribe’s crops might be destroyed in a weather disaster. The extra maize of the first tribe would be needed in the second tribe. To acquire the maize, the second tribe would offer the first tribe another resource they had plenty of, such as furs or carved utensils.
go up in those goods, and more goods would be required to make a satisfactory deal. Tribes in the local region would offer common items for trade. What was common in one geographic region could be highly valued in different geographic regions. Coastal tribes found dentalium seashells common. However, inland tribes who had never been to the ocean found seashells a high-value trade item. Bartering still occurs today. Any time you trade a good like an apple for another good, such as a string cheese, that is bartering.
Sometimes a tribe would send representatives out to communicate and make connections with other tribes. Sometimes the traders were welcomed with music and celebration. A market would be opened for goods to be shown and opportunities for families to make a trade on their own. This is called bartering . Each trader had to negotiate for a satisfactory trade. The trade would depend on how much one of the traders wanted or needed the goods or service. If every family had sufficient furs for the winter, they wouldn’t look to trade for furs. However, if there was scarcity of items, trade values would
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walk heel-to-toe in a single file. This left the smallest marks on the ground and allowed them to travel without being seen. Trading Sites Trade was very important to tribes. They exchanged food, goods, and information. Some locations were more permanent
trading locations, while others moved where the people went. One example of a permanent trading station is the straits of Mackinac. The straits of Mackinac is where Lakes Michigan and Huron meet. This area in the Great Lakes attracted tribes from all over the eastern woodlands to trade. The Odawa and Chippewa had villages at
Mackinac and conducted the trade. Most of the trade happened when native people went to other villages or designated areas for trade. These areas were often convenient locations along travel routes. One such site, the Dakota Rendezvous site, was held along the James River.
NATIVE AMERICAN TRADE ROUTES
Trade Goods
Two thousand years ago, there was a great city of people located in what is now Ohio and Illinois. Modern scientists have studied the remains of the city. The artifacts tell us that Hopewell was a huge metropolis of people, religions, entertainment, and trade. The variety of trade goods was extensive and came from all over the continent. There, archaeologists have recovered ocean shells from the Gulf of Mexico. There is evidence of pigments , which were minerals and soil from the southwest used in paints. The paints were used on pottery, hides, and body decorations. There was also evidence of mica . Mica is a mineral that is reflective and can be cut into thin sheets. Mica crystals are also used in paints, pottery, and decoration. The Appalachian Mountains on the east coast of North America have deposits of mica. The Appalachian Mountains in Pennsylvania and New York also have large pockets of limestone. Limestone is easily ground down and can be white in color. The white powder of limestone was used in the production of a variety of goods. Limestone can be easily obtained from open pits on the sides of the mountains.
Chunks of green copper ore and creations from copper were also discovered in the Hopewell city. Copper ore is found in the west, near present-day Utah. Ornaments, jewelry, utensils, and everyday items were also found in the
archaeological digs of Hopewell. These items provide evidence to the modern world that a vibrant and extensive trade network was in place in the Americas by the time of the Hopewell city.
Native American artifacts housed at Hopewell Culture National Historical Park
Human face effigy, Hopewell Culture Center
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Name ________________________________________________________________________________
Trade Routes Long Ago and Today
Native American Trade Routes of the United States
Trade Routes’ Impact Today We still use a lot of native trails and trade routes. Many major city roads and U.S. highways follow the same paths Native American s took thousands of years ago! For example, Interstate 94 (I-94) between Chicago and Detroit is on top of an old path native peoples used 11,000 years ago! Another example is Interstate (I-75) from Michigan to Florida. This is also on top of an old native path. The original name for this route was “the Great Path.”
Modern Highway Systems of the United States
Look at the map and identify the trade corridors/pathways used today that are the same as the paths Native American s used thousands of years ago. What resources are traded today from one region to another?
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UNIT: THE AGE OF EUROPEAN EXPLORATION AND COLONIZATION
Clash of the Empires
WEEK 17
AMERICAN FOUNDATIONS
Empires of North America
By 1750, the majority of North America was dominated by three large empires: the British, French, and Iroquois Confederacy. Each empire differed in its customs, traditions, and beliefs. The meeting of these empires was peaceful at times but often led to armed conflict. Each empire had a different goal and ways in which it hoped to achieve that goal. British Empire The British Empire was firmly established in North America by 1750. During the Age of Exploration, the British government hoped to gain a foothold in North America to obtain land and new resources. Between 1607 and 1733, the British established 13 permanent colonies along the Atlantic Seaboard, By 1750, the population of the British colonies in North America exceeded one million people. British colonists tapped the raw, natural materials of the continent and engaged in agriculture to produce crops to send to England. These crops and materials were used to produce goods that were then sent to the colonies for purchase. The primary goal of the British government was to control the land to create a profitable system of mercantilism for England. French Empire The French hoped to have the same success in the Americas as their European counterparts. France sent explorers to North America to find riches and resources. The early French explorers arrived in Canada but didn’t find any gold or silver there. However, they did find something of great value. The Native Americans of the area trapped and skinned animals. They traded the furs for
tools, cloth, beads, and guns. Between 1608 and 1718, the French established trading settlements and forts from the Great Lakes region to the Gulf of Mexico, including Quebec, Montreal, Detroit, and New Orleans. Because of its location at the mouth of the Mississippi River and its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, New Orleans quickly became an important port and center for trade. The port of New Orleans took sugarcane and cotton grown in the fertile delta of the Mississippi and shipped it upriver to trading posts in the North. New Orleans’s proximity to island colonies in the Caribbean also made it an important center for trade. The French system of trade was different than the system used by the British. The French used the resources to produce goods to be sold in European markets. They wanted control of the waterways and resources for trade purposes. Iroquois Confederacy The Iroquois Confederacy was a powerful empire made up of six tribes that inhabited areas of the Ohio River Valley and the Northeast, including the Mohawk, Onondaga, Seneca, Oneida, Cayuga, and later, the Tuscarora. The tribes formed a united group, commonly referred to as a confederacy by historians, as early as 1390. The Tuscarora tribe joined the confederacy in 1722. The tribes created an oral constitution that described and enforced the laws of the confederacy. Each tribe had its own government, language, and customs. They relied on the natural environment to meet their needs. Each tribe hunted, farmed, and fished for
their food. They used tools made from materials found in nature, including bone, shells, and rocks. Clothing was made from furs, pelts, and other materials from their natural environment. Large homes were constructed to house multiple members of each tribe. The tribes established complex trade networks throughout the Northeast. The tribes traded amongst themselves for various goods, including crops, furs, shells, and other items from coastal areas. The Mohawk were among the first members of the confederacy to trade with European explorers and settlers. The tribes used their knowledge of the land and hunting methods to trap animals for furs and pelts, which were in high demand in Europe. Tribes that belonged to the Iroquois Confederacy traded with the English and French. They established very different trade relationships with each country. The French were willing to go to the tribes and trade in their villages, while the English made the tribes come to them to trade. Over time, the Native American tribes of the confederacy became dependent on European goods. These goods became a symbol of wealth and prestige, which changed the political, economic, and social structures of the tribes. As the need for European goods grew, the tribes formed military alliances with the French and English. For a time, these alliances helped to maintain peace, but a breakdown in communication led to open hostility and conflict between the tribes and European settlers. One of the greatest conflicts became known as the French and Indian War.
EMPIRES OF NORTH AMERICA, 1750
ESSENTIAL QUESTION
What role did trade play in both cooperation and conflict between and among European settlers?
Struggle to Control a Continent In 1750, the American continent was home to the great Iroquois Confederacy. The seven nations that made the confederacy dominated the smaller nations. Their homeland extended from the Great Lakes to the Mississippi River, over the Appalachian Mountains, and south to Georgia. The confederacy had elaborate trade systems. Their alliances with other nations created security and protection for the people. The Iroquois used the many waterways as trade routes. The network of waterways let people travel, connect, and trade.
The Allegheny River and the Monongahela rivers meet to form the large Ohio River. This place was known as the Forks of the Ohio. The land surrounding the rivers was called the Ohio Country. The Ohio River flows southward to join the Mississippi River, which flows down to the Gulf of Mexico. The Iroquois knew the Forks of the Ohio gave access to the continent. Into this vast empire of the Iroquois While reading the article, use the map to find the locations discussed in the text.
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR LAND CLAIMS
Ensign Joseph Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville was a member of a prominent military family in the colony of New France. Jumonville began his military service at the age of 15, serving under his father for a number of years. Jumonville’s older half-brother served as the military leader at Fort Duquesne, located in the Ohio River country in what is now Pittsburgh. On the morning of May 27, 1754, Jumonville led 35 French soldiers from Fort Duquesne to detain Ensign Joseph Coulon De Jumonville
Tanaghrisson the Half-King Tanaghrisson the Half-King was another important individual during the French and Indian War. Tanaghrisson was a member of the Seneca Tribe. The Seneca Tribe was part of the Iroquois Confederacy. He was chosen by the confederacy to lead the native peoples living in the Ohio River Valley. The fur trade was necessary for Tanaghrisson and his people. He told the French he was their friend and ally against the British. This protected his family and kept them trading with the French. Then, when the British came, Tanaghrisson and his people also became friends and allies with the British. This allowed his people to trade with the British. Tanaghrisson traded with both the French and the British, but ultimately sided with the British during the French and Indian War. He served as a scout for the British, including a young
British forces in the area. He awoke that morning to gunfire. Virginia soldiers and their Native American allies were in the midst of the French soldiers. There are many conflicting reports from that day. What is known is that Jumonville and some of his soldiers were killed. The French had their theories as to how this happened, while the Virginians told a different story. The Native Americans had a completely different story than the French and the Virginians. According to the Articles of Capitulation, the document that outlined the terms of the surrender of Fort Necessity, Jumonville’s brother Louis Coulon de Villiers stated, “... Since the English have in their power an officer and two cadets, and, in general, all the prisoners whom they took when [they] assassinated Sieur de Jumonville they now promise to send them with an escort to Fort Duquesne …” Jumonville’s death sparked a series of events that set the world on a course toward war.
British officer named George Washington. In May 1754, Tanaghrisson told Washington a French military party was nearby. He led Washington and his men to meet Ensign Joseph Coulon de Jumonville’s camp. Tanaghrisson left Washington and his men at Fort Necessity following the death of Jumonville. He moved his people away from the Ohio River to an area in the Allegheny Mountains near Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, where he died in the fall of 1754.
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Mary Jemison Mary Jemison and her family were settlers in an area of the Ohio Country now known as Gettysburg. This was the homeland of the Iroquois Confederacy. The Native Americans did not want British settlers to be on their land. In the 1750s, members of the Iroquois Confederacy attacked the intruders to get them off the land. The Jemison family’s home was attacked by members of the Shawnee tribe and their French allies. Mary was taken captive, and her family was killed. The raiding party and their captives traveled over the mountains about 200 miles to Fort Duquesne at the forks of the Ohio River. Mary was sold by the Shawnee to a group of Seneca. She was adopted and made a member of their nation. Mary spent her life with the Seneca in the southern Ohio Country. She married Sheninjee, a Seneca warrior, and had two children. Mary and her husband left their home in the south. Sheninjee was afraid that white people would come and take Mary. They traveled on foot 700 miles to her husband’s homeland near the Genesee River in western New York. On the trip, Sheninjee was killed in an accident. Mary and the children continued to the Genesee. Sheninjee’s family welcomed her. Later in her life, Mary was given the chance to return to the British settlements. She refused. Mary lived the remainder of her life with her family, the Seneca.
Confederacy came two empires from Europe. The French and the British established trade with the Iroquois. Furs, pelts, and leather were traded for European-manufactured goods. This trade balance was favorable to all. The French were in the northeast region of the continent in present-day Canada. They were also in the Gulf of Mexico in the settlement of New Orleans. The French wanted to connect the northern trade routes with the settlement of New Orleans. This meant they would need to have control of the Ohio Country in western Pennsylvania to reach the Mississippi River. The British Empire had established colonies on the eastern borders of the Iroquois Empire. The Appalachian Mountains, at first, kept them to the sea coast. In the 1750s,
the Iroquois found the British moving westward into the Ohio Country. The British came into the Iroquois land and built permanent trading posts that expanded into settlements. Settlements used the resources the Iroquois needed for their people. The animals left. The resources were consumed, leaving nothing for the Iroquois to live on or to trade with. Three empires wanted the same territory. One empire was trying to maintain control of the Ohio Country. The other two empires struggled to possess it. Caught in a three-way struggle for power, each empire would do whatever it took to win. Alliances, betrayals, secrets, and lies would cost human lives. They worked against each other in a three-way fight for control. Why? Because whoever controlled the Mississippi would controlthe continent.
Mary Being Arrayed in Indian Costume, by James Seaver, 1856
George Washington Gets His Start Young George Washington of Virginia was ambitious . This means he wanted to make an impression on the world. He wanted a life as a British military Washington took some of his men and followed Tanaghrisson. After the death of Jumonville,
On July 4, 1754, he led his defeated men back to Virginia. It was not a very good beginning for a man who wanted to be a British army officer. His actions with Jumonville sparked the French and Indian War.
French. Washington signed the document, not knowing that it also blamed him for the assassination of Jumonville. An assassination is when someone is killed for political or religious reasons.
Washington and his company of men reunited. They quickly built a small fort in a meadow. Fort Necessity became Washington’s first point of defense against the French. Jumonville’s half-brother, Louis Coulon de Villiers, led 600 French troops and 100 of their American Indian allies from Fort Duquesne to Fort Necessity. He would meet with the people who killed his brother. In a rain-soaked meadow, the Virginia militia waited. The constant rain ruined the gunpowder in the muskets. They had no means of defense. When the French force came, there was little Washington could do to save the lives of his men. The French presented Washington with a document written in French. The document gave conditions for surrender. Washington did not speak
officer. Being a British officer would give him status, respect, and wealth. When Virginia Lieutenant Governor Dinwiddie wanted to send a message to the French Army in the Ohio Country, he chose Washington to deliver it. Dinwiddie sent young Lieutenant Colonel George Washington, his second-in- command, Captain Adam Stephen, and a company of Virginia militia to build a fort at the Forks of the Ohio. This would send the message to the French that the Ohio Country belonged to Virginia. The French were not welcome. In May 1754, Washington was joined by Tanaghrisson, the Half-King of the Iroquois Confederacy. Tanagrhisson knew a French patrol’s location.
Washington in the Uniform of a British Colonial Colonel by Charles Willson Peale, 1772
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Name ________________________________________________________________________________
French and Indian War (1754-1763)
The war called the French and Indian War in American history is also called the Seven Years’ War in Europe. Conflicts over the Ohio Country began in 1754. However, the war for control of North America officially started in 1756. It ended when the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1763. This timeline lists information about some of the most important events of the war.
May 28, 1754 French Ambassador Joseph Coulon de Jumonville is killed
1755 Braddock’s defeat at Fort Duquesne
1756 The French take Fort Oswego.
The Ohio Company: Land Speculation The Charter of Virginia showed that Virginia borders stretched all the way to the Pacific Ocean. The land was waiting for settlers to live there and use the rich resources. Wealthy colonists in Virginia created a land speculation company called the Ohio Company. The Ohio Company bought land in the Ohio Country from King George II. This gave them the legal basis to sell land to settlers at a higher price. The members of the Ohio Company would become very wealthy. However, two other empires claimed the same land: the Iroquois Confederacy and the French. Royal Lieutenant Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia was an officer in the Ohio Company. Two of George Washington’s brothers were also investors. If the French gained full control of the Ohio Country, the Ohio Company could not sell any land. They would lose all their investments. No one would be wealthy. It was very important for the French to be forced out of the Ohio Country.
1757 Battle of Fort William Henry
1757 American colonists refuse
to serve under a British officer.
1758 Louisbourg and Fort Duquesne captured by the British
1759 Battle of Quebec
1760 Iroquois join British-American Alliance.
1760 French surrender Montreal.
Thomas Lee, president of the Virginia Council of State, organized the
Ohio Company of Virginia in 1748.
1763 The Treaty of Paris ends the war.
Robert Dinwiddie, British administrator who served as lieutenant governor of colonial Virginia
1755 Fry-Jefferson map showing earlier established colonial borders before the French and Indian War
The Victory of Montcalm’s Troops at Carillon by Henry Alexander Ogden
UNIT: THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
Independence and Revolution: The Government WEEK 23
AMERICAN FOUNDATIONS
from the consent of the governed, —That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it. Part 3: Then, the Declaration shows how the British government has not done its job protecting these rights for the colonists. This is the reason the colonists needed a new government. There are 27 grievances listed as evidence against King George III. Here are just six of them: 1. He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 2. He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures. 3. For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: 4. For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent: 5. For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury: 6. For suspending our own Legislatures, and
declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. Part 4: The conclusion explains what must be done about these grievances. That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved ... The delegates signed and sent the document to the king. They had stated their concerns, given their evidence and reasoning, and proposed their solution. Now they remained firm in their commitment to seeing through what they proposed. Fifty-six men signed the Declaration of Independence. Those signatures gave the king, Parliament, and the British military evidence of treason against the British government. Treason was punishable by death. These men put their honor and their lives on the line to support what they believed in.
On June 7, 1776, delegate Richard Henry Lee proposed a resolution to the Second Continental Congress, which stated, “That these United Colonies are, and, of right, ought to be, Free and Independent States.” The delegates all took a vote on the resolution. The passing vote was counted on July 2, 1776. On July 4, 1776, The United Colonies adopted the document written by Thomas Jefferson. The Declaration of Independence would be sent to King George III. The Declaration of Independence contains the core values of America in its words. Part 1: The Introduction, or preamble, says that all men are created equal. It states that everyone has rights that are unalienable, meaning they can’t be taken away. These rights are “life, liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. Part 2: The next section talks about the purpose of government. The Declaration states that governments are created to protect the unalienable rights. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers
Thomas Jefferson
Signers The signers of the Declaration of Independence were united in their desire for independence. However, they had different strengths and experience. John Hancock signed first and has the largest signature. Hancock was very active in the Sons of Liberty. He escaped capture by the British Regulars at Concord and Lexington. In Philadelphia, the other delegates of Congress voted for him as president. Roger Sherman was on the Committee of Five to write the Declaration. Another member of the committee, John Adams, described him as “one of the most sensible men in the world,” possessing the “clearest head and
steadiest heart.” Adams also said of Sherman’s public speaking, “it is stiffness and awkwardness itself, rigid as starched linen.” Sherman was never in the spotlight or center of the action, but he labored tirelessly on the work of Congress and the war. Benjamin Franklin was also a member of the Committee of Five. He was a steady influence in Congress since he had experience as a representative of Pennsylvania in the court of King George. Franklin urged the colonies to work together. At last, he helped them unite by signing the Declaration of Independence.
ESSENTIAL QUESTION
What were the goals of the Declaration of Independence? What were the goals of the revolutionary government?
GOVERNMENT DURING THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION During the American Revolution, many of the sessions of Congress took place in Philadelphia. However, the delegates of the Congress had to change the location of their meetings multiple times for various reasons throughout the Revolutionary War. 1774: First Meeting in Philadelphia
The First Continental Congress was sparked by the Coercive Acts passed by the British Parliament. Delegates representing the 13 Colonies came together to discuss how they could
protest the Coercive Acts and potentially resolve the issues between the colonies and Parliament. The delegates drafted the Declaration of Rights, which emphasized their loyalty to the Crown, but explained why they felt colonists were being taxed unfairly. They then published the Articles of Association, which called on the colonists to stop importing goods from England as a form of protest. If Parliament didn’t address their grievances by the following year, the American colonies would stop exporting goods to Britain.
by King George III, many colonists and the majority of the Founders came to the conclusion that declaring independence Congress Voting Independence, by Robert Edge Pine. The painting was finished by Edward Savage after Edge Pine’s death.
was the only way to move forward. 1776: Relocation to Baltimore In 1776, the Founders met in Philadelphia and finally made the decision to draft the Declaration of Independence and to formally break with Great Britain. In doing this, the American colonies officially declared war on Great Britain. The Declaration was drafted and ratified in July and August 1776. By this time, the British Army was advancing toward Philadelphia. Since the delegates had committed treason by signing the Declaration of Independence, they were now wanted men. In order to avoid capture, the members of the Continental Congress were forced to gather all of their materials and records and move 100 miles away to Baltimore, Maryland. There, they met again in December 1776. They discussed the war and formed a committee of five members who would be in charge of creating a plan for obtaining foreign assistance for the war.
Engraving of the First Continental Congress, 1782
May 1775: Second Meeting in Philadelphia A year later, the Second Continental Congress began on May 10, 1775, after fighting had already broken out between American colonists and British soldiers at the battles of Lexington and Concord the month before. At this second meeting, the Congress created the Continental Army and named George Washington its commander in chief. The Congress published the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms and then followed it up with the Olive Branch Petition. The Olive Branch Petition was a final plea with King George III to avoid a war and resolve things peacefully. A year later, American colonists fought in battles against British soldiers. The Congress remained divided on whether to declare independence from Britain or remain loyal to the king. However, between fighting the British Army, oppression from British Parliament, and petitions being repeatedly ignored
REACTION TO THE DECLARATION As president of the Continental Congress, John Hancock sent the Declaration of Independence to the government of Great Britain. In a letter dated July 6, 1776, he wrote:
Aug. 24, 1776. The full document was printed alone, with no introduction or comment. In Scotland, the oldest magazine in the world, called The Scots Magazine , printed the Declaration of Independence with negative comments attached. The author denied the statement that “all men are created equal.” He added that even if that were true, it was hardly a reason for rebellion. Parliament looked upon the Declaration as a last-ditch effort of people who were going to lose their rebellion. Parliament
Gentlemen . . . The Congress have judged it necessary to dissolve all connection between Great Britain and the American Colonies, and to declare them free and independent States as you will perceive by the enclosed Declaration, which I am directed to transmit to you. King George III received the letter and the document. He hired John Lind, a lawyer and political writer, to write a response to
also denied any wrongdoing on its part. It denied any responsibility. Parliament members thought the Americans were being ungrateful. They believed the people of the colonies were being misled by the leaders in Philadelphia. Retired Massachusetts royal governor Thomas Hutchinson, who was living in
the Declaration. Lind denied all the things the Americans said about the king. Lind also criticized the notion of unalienable rights. The response became a 132-page book. Newspapers in Great Britain often printed what was happening in America and news from the Continental Congress. The British public knew how the Americans felt about the British government. The Declaration of Independence was printed in a newspaper in Newcastle, England on
England, also responded. He felt the colonies were under poor leadership. He thought that King George could never be wrong. Hutchinson was respectfully treated by the people in England for his service in the colonies. However, Hutchinson was always homesick for Boston. He never returned, though, and he died in England in 1780.
King George III c. 1800
Week 23 of 32 • Page 3
Foundations of the Revolutionary Government
1777: Lancaster and York As the war raged on, the Congress briefly returned to Philadelphia from March 4, 1777, to Sep. 18, 1777. Once again, however, Philadelphia proved to be too dangerous for the delegates to conduct their business in. They were forced to relocate once more. On Sep. 27, 1777, the Congress met in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and then moved its meetings to York from Sep. 30, 1777, to June 27, 1778. 1778-1781: Return to Philadelphia At last, in July 1778, the British Army was forced to abandon its occupation of Philadelphia, making it safe for Patriots again. Congress returned once more to Philadelphia, where it remained till the end of the war. Despite the challenges that came with moving locations amid the dangers of ongoing warfare, the Continental Congress persisted. It continued to successfully work together to make decisions that supported and strengthened the new nation.
In 1776, a year after the first battles between American colonists and British soldiers, the Committee of Five was created. Its aim was to write the Declaration of Independence. Knowing that a war with Britain was on the horizon, the Founders had spent the previous year reviewing and discussing each colony’s charter. Each colony would become a state after breaking with Great Britain. Each colony would also need to be able to govern and provide for itself if a war broke out. Shortly after the Committee of Five was created, another committee of 13 representatives, one from each colony, was appointed to draft a constitution for the United States. A governmental constitution would be needed once the colonies became a new nation. This first constitution was called the Articles of Confederation. Throughout the Revolutionary War, the colonies operated under a temporary revolutionary government. It was only at the end of the war that the Articles of Confederation were finally ratified by all 13 colonies. The Continental Congress had been the governing body during the Revolutionary War. When forming the Articles of Confederation, Congress looked at a confederation organization. Strength and power were what the members of Congress wanted in a government for the new nation. Congress created the Articles of Confederation to provide the written rules for how the states’ “league of friendship” would be organized. The new government was fearful of a monarchy, where authority is centered on one person. The founders of the new government wanted to model
the government after principles that proved successful in the Iroquois Confederacy. The Iroquois Confederacy model spread authority over its members. The Articles of Confederation had no strong central leader. Congress was the governing body. The Articles of Confederation gave rules for what actions Congress could take to govern the country. These rules were created with each state’s constitution in mind and gave most of the governing power to the individual states. Over the next few years, the operation of government under the Articles of
Confederation proved to be ineffective. With power divided over many states, there was confusion, competition, and conflict.
Independence Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
The Articles of Confederation
Civilian Control of the Military
Having sufficient national security while at the same time ensuring that armed forces won’t undermine freedom and democracy has been a tricky balancing act throughout America’s history. The purchase of officer commissions was a common practice in the British military during the 18th and 19th centuries. This meant that men who were wealthy,
owned a lot of land, or who had influential relatives of noble or wealthy standing could buy their way into the higher ranks of the military. Common people had almost no hope of being elevated to higher-ranking positions. The power to make major military decisions rested in the hands of these higher-ranking officers. This meant that the power and command of the British military remained in the hands of the rich and privileged. Another problem with creating an army was how to ensure that the army would have enough power to be successful without abusing its power and overthrowing the government. The members of the Continental Congress wanted to prevent these problems and do away with the old military systems. They wanted to ensure that civilian government leaders had authority over the military. This would, in turn, ensure that the people had a say in how the military should operate. The Congress came up with the idea for a civilian-controlled army that had a similar system of checks and balances that the future U.S. government would have. Civilian control of the military meant that control of
the armed forces would be in the hands of civilian government leaders elected by the people. To lead the army, a civilian was elected to be the commander-in-chief. The commander-in-chief had many responsibilities, such as commissioning other military leaders and reporting regularly to Congress. The commander-in- chief could not make decisions or accept terms of peace or war without Congress’s approval first. General George Washington was elected to be the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War. One example of how this power worked was when Washington was approached by British officers with offers of peace. Washington honored the balance of power between his position and Congress. Rather than accept or deny their offers of peace, Washington told the British officers that they had to speak with Congress if they wanted to make negotiations with the United States. This is a good example of a civilian-controlled army. Washington led the troops into battle, but Congress made decisions on behalf of the nation.
George Washington , c. 1787-1790
Week 23 of 32 • Page 4
Name ________________________________________________________________________________
Roger Sherman Roger Sherman is often overlooked when studying the American Revolution, but he played an important role in creating the revolutionary government and securing American independence from Great Britain. Sherman was born in Massachusetts in 1721. He began working at an early age after studying the techniques of surveying land. He also trained to become a cordwainer, a person who makes goods and products from leather. After his father’s death, Sherman moved with his family to Connecticut. Sherman was known to be hardworking, dedicated to service, and extremely sensible. These traits led to his appointment as the surveyor for New Haven and Litchfield counties in Connecticut. Sherman became interested in politics while working as a county surveyor. He taught himself law and became a lawyer in 1754. Sherman served as a member of the
Connecticut House of Representatives and the General Assembly. Sherman opposed the acts and restrictions passed by Great Britain in the colonies. He believed the colonists should have an equal voice in Parliament. Following the passage of the Tea Act in 1773, he stated that, “no laws bind the people but such as they consent to be Governed by.” Because of his beliefs and dedication to the colonies, Sherman was selected to represent Connecticut at the First Continental Congress. He worked diligently in support of American independence. He served as a member of the Committee of Five and helped draft the Declaration of Independence. Sherman also helped write the Articles of Confederation and served on multiple committees during the war. His ideas and perseverance helped form the Revolutionary government.
Portrait of Roger Sherman by Ralph Earl, c. 1775
Primary Source Analysis: The Minutes of the New Government The following text contains excerpts from the Journals of the
____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 2. What is the purpose of this entry? ______________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 3. How does it help you understand the events that took place? _______ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ Nov. 15, 1777 A copy of the confederation being made out, and sundry small verbal amendments preserving made in the diction, without altering the sense, the same was agreed to, and is as follows: Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, between the States of … Ordered, That the committee appointed to revise and arrange the articles of confederation, have three hundred copies printed and lodged with the secretary, to be subject to the future orders of
Continental Congress, 1774-1789. These journals were kept to record the day-to-day activities and decisions of the new government. Read the primary source and answer the analysis questions. July 2, 1776 The Congress resumed the consideration of the resolution agreed to by and reported from the committee of the whole; and the same being read, was agreed to as follows: Resolved, That these United Colonies are, and, of right, ought to be, Free and Independent States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connexion between them, and the state of Great Britain, is, and ought to be, totally dissolved. Resolved, That this Congress will, to morrow, again resolve itself into a committee of the whole, to take into their farther consideration the declaration on independence. Write this excerpt in your own words. ___________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ What is the purpose of this entry?______________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ How does it help you understand the events that took place?______ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ July 4, 1776 Agreeable to the order of the day, the Congress resolved itself into a committee of the whole, to take into their farther consideration, the declaration; and, after some time, the president resumed the chair. Mr. [Benjamin] Harrison reported, that the committee of the whole Congress have agreed to a Declaration, which he delivered in… Ordered, That the declaration be authenticated and printed. That the committee appointed to prepare the declaration, superintend and correct the press. That copies of the declaration be sent to the several assemblies, conventions and committees, or councils of safety, and to the several commanding officers of the continental troops; that it be proclaimed in each of the United States, and at the head of the army … 1. Write this excerpt in your own words. ___________________________
• Connecticut, • New York, • New Jersey, • Pennsylvania, • Delaware,
• Maryland, • Virginia,
• New Hampshire, • Massachusetts Bay, • Rhode Island and Providence Plantations,
• North Carolina, • South Carolina, • Georgia.
Congress; and that the articles of confederation, as now agreed to, be entered on the journal… Write this excerpt in your own words. _ ___________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ What is the purpose of this entry?______________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ How does it help you understand the events that took place?______ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________
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